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Neuroanatomy • Neuroanatomy refers to the study of the parts and function of neurons. • Neurons are individual nerve cells that combine to create the body’s nervous system (communication system). Types of Neurons • There are three types of neurons: –Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons) –Interneurons –Efferent Neurons (Motor Neurons) •Afferent Neurons are responsible for taking information from the senses TO the brain. • Interneurons are located in the spinal cord and the brain, and are primarily responsible for processing information. •Efferent Neurons are responsible for taking information FROM the brain and the spinal cord, and back to the rest of the body. • Most information travels from the body, up the spinal cord, is processed by the brain, sent back down the spinal cord, and then back to the body with behavior instructions. The exception to this general pathway is reflexes. •Reflexes are controlled by the spinal cord without any conscious effort on behalf of the brain. Parts of a Neuron • A. Dendrites – Thin, branching fibers lined with receptors at which the dendrite receives information from other neurons. The greater the surface area, the greater the amount of information. Some dendrites are covered with spines which greatly increase its surface area. • B. Cell Body/Soma –Contains the (C) nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain life C. Nucleus • The function of the nucleus is to control the activities of the cell • D. Axon –Wire-like structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body • E. Myelin Sheath – An insulating, fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural transmissions. Made of Schwann cells. – Axons that are myelinated appear white. Known as “white matter.” F. Schwann Cells • Provide for the growth of the myelin sheath. • G. Nodes of Ranvier – Regularly spaced gaps in the myelin sheath around an axon or nerve fiber. This is where depolarization takes place. • H. Terminal Buttons –The branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters • I. Synapse –The space between the terminal buttons on one neuron and dendrites of the next neuron • Neurotransmitters – Chemicals contained in the terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate. Neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the dendrites of neurons like a key fits into a lock. Neural Transmission • In its resting state (resting potential or polarization), a neuron has a negative charge because mostly negative ions are within the cell. Surrounding the cell are positively charged ions. The ions cannot mix because in its resting stage, the cell membrane is semi-impermeable. • A neuron has a pre-set level of stimulation that needs to be met or exceeded in order for it to pass the received impulses on to the next neuron. This is called a neuron’s threshold. • If the threshold has been met or exceeded, a chain reaction begins. • With threshold being met, the cell becomes depolarized and allows positively charged ions into the axon at the nodes of ranvier. This mix of positive and negative ions causes an electrical charge to form (an action potential). At 120 meters per second, the action potential travels to the terminal buttons. • At the terminal buttons, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and passed along to the dendrites of the next neuron. • If enough neurotransmitters have been sent, the next neuron will fire. If not, the message ends. This is called the all-or-nothing principle. • After a neuron fires its message, there is a brief period of time before it can fire again. This is called a neuron’s refractory period. • During the refractory period, excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron, called re-uptake, as well as the cell becoming polarized once again. • Depending on what type of neurotransmitter has been released, the next neuron will react differently. Since nerve cells are connected to the brain, muscles, glands, etc., the entire human body reacts different depending upon what type of neurotransmitter has been released. Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine (ACh) • Enables muscle action, REM sleep, and memory • Undersupply, as AChproducing neurons deteriorate, marks Alzheimer’s disease Dopamine • Reward and Motivation, Motor Control over Voluntary Movements • Excessive dopamine receptor activity is linked to schizophrenia; a lack of dopamine produces the tremors and lack of mobility of Parkinson’s disease Serotonin • Affects mood, hunger, temperature regulation, sleep, and arousal • Undersupply is linked to depression; Prozac and other anti-depressants raise serotonin levels Norepinephrine • Helps to control alertness, dreaming, waking from sleep, reactions to stress • Undersupply can depress mood GABA • Neural inhibitor with a tranquilizing effect. • Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia Glutamate • Involved in memory • Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures Endorphins •Natural opiates that are released in response to pain and vigorous exercise Endorphins Epinephrine • Adrenaline Burst of Energy (small amounts in brain) Drugs and Chemical Interactions with Neural Transmission • Some drugs that people put into their bodies are classified as agonists. • Agonists may either speed up the neural process, cause an over-release or absorption of a neurotransmitter, or block the re-uptake process. • After a neuron fires, if reuptake is blocked, the lingering neurotransmitters in the synapse will continue to be absorbed by the receiving neuron until it is gone. • Therefore, a lingering feeling will occur. Examples of Agonists • Cocaine – blocks the reuptake of dopamine • MDMA (Ecstasy) – excessive release of serotonin • Some drugs that people put into their bodies are classified as antagonists. • Antagonists may slow or stop the transmission of a neurotransmitter, or they may bind themselves to receptors on a neuron’s dendrite, thus not allowing a message to be passed on. Examples of Antagonists • Curare – a poison that stops the flow of Ach – causes paralysis