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The Brain The brain is a combination of two types of cells, glial cells and neurons The brain consists of 100 billion neurons and 1012 total cells Neurons • Cells in the brain that communicate with each other • Neurons are “born” early in life • Do not regenerate Glial Cells • Provide support for neurons – Structure support – Metabolic and nutritional support • Can replace themselves • Serve to clean up the brain, removes dead tissue and foreign objects • Play a large role in neural development • May even be communicating with neurons • Role is expanding with new research Glia and Neurons Many different types of neurons Pyramidal neuron Purkinje neuron Parts of the Neuron • • • • Neurons communicate in two ways Electrical signal: within a neuron Chemical signal: between neurons Electrical signal is sent from one part of the neuron to the other: The signal travels from the dendrite through the cell body to the axon – Dendrites receive the signal from another neuron – Axons send the signal to other neurons • Chemical signal is sent from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of another neuron Properties of the Neuron • Neurons contain many ions and are charged A- are large protein ions that always stay inside the cell K+ is potassium. At rest it is mostly inside the cell Cl- is chloride. It exists both inside and outside the cell Na+ is sodium. It exists primarily outside the cell • When the cell is at rest (i.e., not doing anything), it has a charge of -70 mV. This is called the resting potential. • Because of the cell properties, many forces are acting on the cell. • 1. Diffusion - substances tend to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. • 2. Like charges repel each other and opposite charges attract • Charges stay the way they are because of the cell membrane. It is selectively permeable. It does this by ion channels. • Normally the membrane closes Na+ channels • However, if the membrane is given an electrical charge, it causes the membrane to lose some permeability • This opens the sodium channels • If this electrical charge is large enough, the flood gates will open (depolarize) • Change in charge is potentiated down the length of the neuron • This wave of charge is called the action potential Sodium / Potassium Pump • Once sodium has rushed in, the cell quickly regains its composure (hyperpolarize) • Active process in which sodium is removed from the cell • Sodium is exchanged for potassium • Requires metabolic activity • Returns charge inside cell to -70 mV • Refractory period-neuron cannot fire Communication Between Neurons • When the action potential reaches the terminal button, it causes a release of chemicals called neurotransmitters • These neurotransmitters are dumped into the synapse, the space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another • Neurotransmitters come into contact with membrane of the other neuron • Receptors on the dendrite detect the neurotransmitter • NT binds to the receptor • This causes a temporary change in the membrane, allowing a little sodium inside the cell • This small charge is called the graded potential • This is passed on to the axon and it summates • Myelin – a layer of proteins that are wrapped around the axon. • Two functions: to protect the axon, and to speed up transmission • Without myelin, neural transmission is inefficient • Multiple Sclerosis – an autoimmune disorder in which the myelin is destroyed. – Fatigue, pain, motor disorders, cognitive disorders, etc. Removal of Neurotransmitter • After the NT is initially released, the chemical must be removed • This is done in a couple of different ways – Biochemical breakdown of the NT using enzymes – Reuptake: NT is pulled back into the presynaptic button and packaged to be released again Types of Neurotransmitters • Excitatory – Glutamate – Acetylcholine • Inhibitory – GABA – Norepinephrine • Both – Dopamine – Serotonin Effects of Drugs • Psychopharmacology- the study of how drugs affect behavior • Nearly all drugs work by affecting neurotransmitter release Effect of Prozac Prozac is an example of a SSRI – a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Hives inability to sit still itching restlessness skin rash Less common Chills or fever joint or muscle pain Rare Anxiety cold sweats confusion convulsions (seizures) cool pale skin diarrhea difficulty with concentration drowsiness dryness of the mouth excessive hunger fast or irregular heartbeat headache increased sweating increased thirst lack of energy mood or behavior changes overactive reflexes purple or red spots on the skin racing heartbeat shakiness or unsteady walk shivering or shaking talking, feeling, and acting with excitement and activity you cannot control trouble with breathing unusual or incomplete body or facial movements unusual tiredness or weakness Incidence not known Abdominal or stomach pain agitation back or leg pains bleeding gums blindness blistering, peeling, or loosening of the skin bloating blood in the urine or stools bloody, black, or tarry stools blue-yellow color blindness blurred vision chest pain or discomfort clay-colored stools constipation • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • sore throat sores, ulcers, or white spots on the lips or in the mouth stopping of heart sudden shortness of breath or troubled breathing sudden weakness in the arms or legs sudden, severe chest pain swelling of the face, ankles, or hands swollen or painful glands thoughts of killing oneself tightness in the chest tiredness twitching, twisting, or uncontrolled repetitive movements of the tongue, lips, face, arms, or legs unconsciousness unpleasant breath odor unusual bleeding or bruising unusual drowsiness, dullness, tiredness, weakness, or feeling of sluggishness unusually pale skin use of extreme physical or emotional force vomiting of blood yellow eyes or skin Some fluoxetine side effects may not need any medical attention. As your body gets used to the medicine these side effects may disappear. Your health care professional may be able to help you prevent or reduce these side effects, but do check with them if any of the following side effects continue, or if you are concerned about them: More common Decreased appetite Less common or rare Abnormal dreams breast enlargement or pain change in sense of taste changes in vision feeling of warmth or heat flushing or redness of the skin, especially on face and neck frequent urination hair loss increased appetite increased sensitivity of the skin to sunlight menstrual pain stomach cramps, gas, or pain unusual secretion of milk, in females weight loss yawning Incidence not known Cracks in the skin loss of heat from the body painful or prolonged erections of the penis scaly skin swelling of the breasts or breast soreness in both females and males unusual milk production • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • continuing vomiting cough or dry cough dark urine decreased urine output decreased vision depression difficulty with breathing difficulty with swallowing dizziness or lightheadedness eye pain fainting fast, pounding, or irregular heartbeat or pulse general body swelling high fever hives, itching, puffiness or swelling of the eyelids or around the eyes, face, lips, or tongue hostility indigestion irregular or slow heart rate irritability large, hive-like swelling on the face, eyelids, lips, tongue, throat, hands, legs, feet, or sex organs light-colored stools loss of appetite loss of bladder control muscle twitching nausea nightmares noisy breathing nosebleeds pain in the ankles or knees painful, red lumps under the skin, mostly on the legs pains in the stomach, side, or abdomen, possibly radiating to the back pinpoint red spots on the skin rapid weight gain red or irritated eyes red skin lesions, often with a purple center redness, tenderness, itching, burning, or peeling of the skin severe muscle stiffness severe sleepiness slurred speech • Alcohol – Activates GABA receptors-inhibitory • Nicotine – Activates acetylcholine receptors-stimulatory – Changes overall number of ACH receptors • Cocaine – Blocks reuptake of dopamine– Stimulates release of dopamine– Anesthetic effect on cells – Dopamine can be both, stimulatory here • Amphetamine / Methamphetamine – Similar to cocaine with no anesthetic effect • Crack – Exactly like cocaine, just more efficient • Heroin – Activates opiate receptors-inhibitory • Marijuana – Activates cannabinoid/THC receptors (similar to opiate)-inhibitory • Ecstasy (MDMA) – Selectively destroys neurons that release serotonin – Serotonin is dumped out when the cell dies – Increases overall body temperature Divisions of the Nervous System • Central Nervous System: Includes Brain and Spinal Cord • Peripheral Nervous System: All other neural tissue. Specifically, the periphery. This includes muscles, the skin, and even the organs • PNS broken down into two parts 1. Somatic nervous system: nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system AND motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle. 2. Autonomic nervous system – Controls the "insides" (the "viscera") of our body, like the heart, stomach and intestines - functions in an involuntary, reflexive manner - does things like constrict blood vessels, dilate pupils, and even makes our heart beat fast on a roller coaster, etc. -Has two components - A. Sympathetic nervous system: - B. Parasympathetic nervous system • Sympathetic NS- Regulates “Fight or Flight” – Prepares the body during stressful situations – Increases heart beat, blood pressure, speeds breathing, slows digestive function • Parasympathetic NS – Regulates "rest and digest" – Keeps the body running calmly – Shuts down the sympathetic NS when the situation becomes less stressful Parts of the CNS • Spinal Cord: Two types of material, white matter (Axons) and grey matter (cell bodies) Usual pattern of gray/white in CNS White exterior to gray _________________ Gray surrounds hollow central cavity____________________________ Two regions with additional gray called “cortex”_____________________________ Cerebrum: “cerebral cortex” Cerebellum: “cerebellar cortex” • Spinal cord relays sensory and motor information to and from the brain • Controls reflexes – Ex. Knee jerk reflex, pain reflex • Afferent neurons: neurons that send their signal TOWARDS the spinal cord • Efferent neurons: neurons that send their signal AWAY from the spinal cord • Reflex involves two neurons, one afferent and one efferent • Reflexive action takes place before it is sent to the brain • Allows for extremely efficient processing Parts of the Brain • 3 major divisions 1. Hindbrain: Cerebellum; Pons; Medulla 2. Forebrain: Cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus 3. Midbrain Anatomical classification • Cerebral hemispheres • Diencephalon – Thalamus – Hypothalamus • Brain stem – Midbrain – Pons – Medulla • Cerebellum • Spinal cord Hindbrain • Cerebellum: Extremely large area, millions of neurons – Responsible for coordination of movement – Plays a role in learning (muscle memory) – Also some role in cognition • Pons – Important for sleep and especially dreaming • Medulla – Controls all vital functions of the body including breathing and heart rate Cerebellum Two major hemispheres: three lobes each Anterior Posterior Floculonodular Separated from brain stem by 4th ventricle Vermis: midline lobe connecting hemispheres Outer cortex of gray Inner branching white matter, called “arbor vitae” Brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Forebrain • Thalamus – Primary relay station of the brain – Almost all sensory information passes through before going elsewhere • Hypothalamus – Regulates autonomic nervous system – Regulates hormones, Feeding, Fighting, Fleeing, and sexual behavior • Amygdala – Responsible for many aspects of emotion – Emotional learning • Hippocampus – Especially important for learning and memory – Resolving conflict • Cerebral Cortex – Does just about everything – Many think that the cortex is what makes humans the way they are – Cortex is broken up into 4 lobes: • • • • Frontal lobe: the front of the brain Temporal lobe: side, the temples Parietal lobe: kinda middle portion Occipital Lobe: very back • Frontal lobe – Important for planning – Thinking / decision making – Primary motor cortex: Generation of movement – Broca’s area: Production of Speech • Temporal lobe – Audition – Wernicke’s area: Language comprehension • Parietal lobe – Somatosensory function (touch, vibration, pain, pleasure) – Combination of all senses with vision • Occipital lobe – Vision: Primary visual cortex Surface anatomy Gyri (plural of gyrus) Elevated ridges Entire surface Grooves separate gyri A sulcus is a shallow groove (plural, sulci) Deeper grooves are fissures Cerebral hemispheres: note lobes Divided by longitudinal fissure into right & left sides Central sulcus divides frontal from parietal lobes Two Halves of the Brain • Brain is actually two different halves. It is split down the middle, with the right and left side being very similar to the other • The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum: a bunch of axons Ventricles Central cavities expanded Filled with CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) Lined by ependymal cells (these cells lining the choroid plexus make the CSF: see later slides) Continuous with each other and central canal of spinal cord In the following slides, the ventricles are the parts colored blue Lateral ventricles Paired, horseshoe shape In cerebral hemispheres Anterior are close, separated only by thin Septum pellucidum Third ventricle In diencephalon Connections Interventricular foramen Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle In the brainstem Dorsal to pons and top of medulla Holes connect it with subarachnoid space • Each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. – Ex. Moving right arm controlled by the left side of the brain. • Systematic differences in right vs. left. • Most language and music on the left. – Somewhat different for left-handed people • The right hemisphere more involved with visual imagery and creativity. Split-brain Patients • Sometimes the corpus callosum of a person is cut. It is often surgically cut in patients with severe epilepsy. • Allows for the study of the role of each hemisphere Studying the Brain with Animals • Lesioning of the brain – Electrical lesions- electricity is passed through an electrode until neurons die – Chemical lesions- inject chemicals like acid to kill neurons • Injection of drugs • In Vitro analysis: “In the Lab” – brain tissue is removed, isolated, and studied on its own. Individual neurons can be studied • In Vivo analysis: “In the Living” – the brain is studied in an intact animal Studying the Brain of Humans • EEG: electroencephalogram – electrodes are placed on the scalp. – It records the electrical activity of neurons. – Problem: It records from thousands of neurons at a time; not very precise EEG printout • “CAT” scan: Computerized tomography – Computer enhanced 3-D X-Rays – Not much resolution, still life • MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging – uses magnetic fields to get brain scans – Just get a picture • PET scan: Positron Emission Tomography – patients are injected with radioactive glucose. The scanner tracks where the glucose moves to. This is used as an indicator of neural activity. - Has problems: very expensive, resolution is fairly low. • Functional MRI (fMRI) – Registers changes in the metabolism of cells – Get 3-D picture of real time brain activity – Very expensive Sensory areas Posterior to central sulcus Primary somatosensory cortex: postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe (allows conscious awareness of sensation and the ability to localize it: where the sensation is from) Somatosensory association area: behind it (understanding of what is being felt: the meaning of it) From special sense organs Sight: occipital lobe Primary visual cortex (17) Handles info from contralateral retina (right ½ of visual field is on left side) Map of visual space If damaged: functionally blind because no conscious awareness of sight Visual association area (18 & 19) Face recognition is usually on the right side Hearing: temporal lobe Primary auditory area (41) Auditory association area (22) Smell (olfactory sense): uncus Deep in temporal lobe along medial surface