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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY and Its Implications The Science of Cognition 1 The Science of Cognition • Cognitive Psychology – The science of how the mind is organized to produce intelligent thought and how it is realized in the brain The Science of Cognition Considers: • • • • Motivations Implications for Other Fields The History of Cognitive Psychology Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons • Organization of the Brain • Methods in Cognitive Neuroscience Motivations Intellectual Curiosity - Artificial Intelligence Implications for Other Fields • Practical Applications – What does cognitive psychology tell us about how to study effectively? – How to improve problem-solving – Improve education and learning The History of Cognitive Psychology Early History • Traced to ancient Greeks – Plato and Aristotle – Philosophical discussions sparked a debate – Two positions emerged: 1. Empiricism - knowledge from experience 2. Nativism - innate knowledge The History of Cognitive Psychology Psychology in Germany: Focus on Introspective Observation Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory (1879). – A cognitive approach to psychology – Introspection • Sample introspective experiment (Mayer and Orth, 1901) – Free association task The History of Cognitive Psychology Psychology in America: Focus on Behavior • William James – Principles of Psychology (1890) • Edward Thorndike – Learning theory applicable to classrooms The History of Cognitive Psychology Psychology in America: Focus on Behavior • John B. Watson – Behaviorism • Branch of psychology concerned with external behavior • pushed research on cognition into the background The History of Cognitive Psychology Gestalt Psychology – activity of the brain and the mind is more than the sum of its parts – popular in Europe The History of Cognitive Psychology The Cognitive Revolution: AI, Information Theory, and Linguistics • Three main influences: - Research on human performance (World War II) - Computer Science: Artificial Intelligence (AI) - Linguistics- study of the structure of language (Noam Chomsky) The History of Cognitive Psychology Information-Processing Analyses • Information-Processing Approach • Sternberg Paradigm The time needed to recognize a digit increases with the number of items in the memory set. The straight line represents the linear function that fits the data best. Sternberg’s analysis of the sequence of information-processing stages in his task The History of Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Neuroscience • Cognitive Neuroscience – The study of how cognition is realized in the brain Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons • Neuron – A cell that accumulates and transmits electrical activity in the nervous system Some of the variety of neurons Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons The Neuron • Neurons come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes • Soma – Main body of the neuron Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons The Neuron • Dendrite – branch-like processes extending from the cell soma – receive info from terminal buttons of adjacent neurons Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons The Neuron • Axon – Long, thin tube extending from soma – Vary in length (from a few millimeters to a meter) Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons The Neuron • Terminal boutons – Ball-like structures located at ends of axon branches – Contains neurotransmitters – Form synapses with other neurons Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons The Neuron • Synapse – The gap separating the terminal bouton of one neuron and the dendrite (or soma) of the next neuron in the chain A typical neuron Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons The Neuron • Neurotransmitter – A chemical that crosses the synapse from the terminal bouton of one neuron to alter the electric potential of the membrane of the next neuron – How one neuron communicates with the next Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons The Neuron • Polarization (electric potential) – Excitatory synapses • Increase the likelihood of a cell firing – Inhibitory synapses • Decrease the likelihood of a cell firing Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons The Neuron • Action potential – A brief electrical impulse by which electrical info is transmitted along the neuron’s axon – When an action potential reaches the terminal bouton, the bouton secretes a chemical substance called a neurotransmitter Information Processing: The Communicative Neurons Neural Representation of Information • Determinants of the representation of information in the brain - Membrane Potential 1. more or less negative - Rate of Firing 1. the number of nerve impulses an axon transmits per second Organization of the Brain • Lower brain regions – more primitive function – Medulla: breathing, swallowing, digestion, and heartbeat – Hypothalamus: basic drives – Cerebellum: voluntary movement – Thalamus: relay station A cross-sectional view of the brain showing some of its major components Organization of the Brain • Cerebral Cortex – Most recently evolved area of the brain – Most advanced cognitions • Gyrus- bulge on the cortex • Sulcus- crease on the cortex Organization of the Brain Four lobes of the cortex • Frontal Lobe – Involved in two major functions: 1. Back portion – primarily motor functions 2. Front portion (prefrontal cortex) – higher level process (e.g., planning) • Occipital Lobe – Contains primary visual areas Organization of the Brain Four lobes of the cortex • Parietal Lobe – Sensory functions, especially those involving spatial processing • Temporal Lobe – Primary auditory areas and recognition of objects Organization of the Brain Sub-cortical Structures • Hippocampus- Critical to memory • Basal ganglia- Basic motor control and in the control of complex cognition Anderson, Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications, Structures under the cortex that are part of the limbic system, which includes the hippocampus (shaded in red). The major structures of the basal ganglia (red-shaded areas) include the caudate nucleus, the subthalamic nucleus, the substantia nigra, the globus pallidus, and the putamen. The critical connections (inputs and outputs) of the basal ganglia are illustrated. Organization of the Brain Localization of Function • Left and right hemispheres – Specialized for different types of processing: • Left – linguistic and analytic • Right – perceptual and spatial • Corpus callosum – Broad band of neural fibers that connects the two hemispheres Organization of the Brain Localization of Function • Split-brain patients – Have had an operation that surgically severed the corpus callosum – The two hemispheres differ in their specialization. Organization of the Brain Localization of Function • Aphasia – Severe impairment of speech caused by damage to the brain Organization of the Brain Localization of Function • Broca’s area – A region in the left frontal cortex that is important for processing language, particularly syntax in speech –Broca’s aphasia: severe difficulties in producing spoken speech • Speech is short, ungrammatical sentences, etc. Organization of the Brain Localization of Function • Wernicke’s area – A region in the left temporal lobe that is important to language, particularly the semantic content in speech – Wernicke’s aphasia: serious disruptions in comprehension • Speak fairly grammatical sentences that are almost devoid of meaning A side view of the cerebral cortex showing the four lobes of each hemisphere and other major components Organization of the Brain Topographic Organization • In many areas of the cortex, information processing is structured spatially. – Adjacent areas in the cortex represent information from adjacent areas of the visual field. Evidence of topographic organization A cross section of the somatosensory cortex, showing how the human body is mapped in the neural tissue EEG profiles Methods in Cognitive Neuroscience • Electroencephalography (EEG) - event-related potentials (ERPs) - magnetoencephalography (MEG) • Positron emission tomography (PET) • Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) • Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Areas in the lateral aspect of the cortex activated by visual word reading. Triangles mark locations activated by the passive visual task, squares the locations activated by the semantic task. Methods in Cognitive Neuroscience Using fMRI to Study Equation Solving • Equation solving by Children (Qin et al., 2004) • Blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response The steps of an information-processing model for solving the equation 7x+1=29 Regions of interest for the fMRI scan in the Qin et al. (2004) equation-solving experiment Responses of the motor region for different equation complexities. Responses of the parietal region for different equation complexities. Responses of the prefrontal region for different equation complexities. Conclusions