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The Nervous System Coordination, Integration, Control Key Concepts and Important Terms • Nervous systems function in sensory input, integration, and motor output. • The nervous system is composed of neurons and supporting cells. • Membrane potentials arise from differences in ion concentrations between a cell’s contents and the extracellular fluid. • An action potential is an all-or-none change in the membrane potential. • Action potentials travel along an axon because they are self-propagating. • Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses. • One neurotransmitter can produce different effects on different types of cells. • The symmetry of the nervous system is correlated with body symmetry. • Vertebrate nervous systems are highly centralized and cephalized. • The vertebrate peripheral nervous system has several components differing in organization and function. • The brainstem conducts data and controls automatic activities essential for survival. • The cerebellum controls movement and balance. • The thalamus and hypothalamus are prominent integrating centers of the forebrain. • The cerebrum contains the most sophisticated integrating centers. A. Enumeration. 1-2. Two types of cells in the nervous system. 3-5. Three types of nerve cells involved in a reflex arc. 6-7. Two trends in the evolution of the NS in animals. 8-9. Two trends in the evolution of the brain in vertebrates. B. What’s the difference? 10. axon vs. dendrite 11. depolarization vs. repolarization 12. saltatory conduction vs. conduction in an unmyelinated axon 13. brain vs. ganglion 14. transmission via gap junction vs. transmission via synapse 15. autonomic vs. somatic nervous system Q U I Z 1 Functions of Nervous Systems Sensory input • Sensory receptors PNS, Sensory Neurons Integration • CNS: Brain and spinal cord PNS, Motor Neurons Motor output • Effector cells: Muscles and glands Cells of the Nervous System 1. Neurons • Functional unit of the NS • Transmit signals from one location to another • Structure • Large cell body • Processes that conduct signals • Dendrites • Axons 2. Glia • Supporting cells • Protect neurons • Insulate neurons • Provide structure • Ex: astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, satellite and Schwann cells The Dendrite Song! (sung to the tune of "Clementine" sent in by Leah B., a graduate student in elementary education at Long Island Univ. Leah gives credit to Bruce Campbell for composing this song.) Use your dendrites, Use your dendrites, To connect throughout your brain. Take in info, analyze it, Grow some new ones Unrestrained. Axons send out Neurotransmitters To the dendrites all around Across the synapse Jumps the impulse New ideas can now abound. Stimulation Is what the brain needs To make dendrites stretch and grow. New connections Make us smarter In what we think and what we know. Use your dendrites, Use your dendrites, To connect throughout your brain Take in info, analyze it, Grow some new ones Unrestrained. How are neurons organized? • Three types of neurons 1. Sensory neurons 2. Interneurons 3. Motor neurons • Neural circuits form from any combination of two or more of these 1. Convergent: (many to one) 2. Divergent: (one to many) 3. Reverberating: (circular) • Simplest: Sensory and motor neurons – reflex arc Electrical conduction of information • Membrane potential – Difference of charges across the plasma membrane • Resting potential – Resting cells are (-) inside and (+) outside – Large amounts of Na+ outside the cell and K+ inside • Action potential/impulse – Rapid reversals in charges across the plasma membrane – Caused by the exchange of ions across the membrane of the neuron – Threshold level (-55mV) needed to stimulate neurons ALL-ORNONE principle DEPOLARIZATION •Action potential generated •Na+ channels open, K+ channels close •+ inside, - outside •Rise in membrane potential RESTING • Na+, K+ channels closed • + outside, - inside • Resting potential maintained REPOLARIZATION •Na+ channels close, K+ channels open •- inside, + outside •Drop in membrane potential UNDERSHOOT/ HYPERPOLARIZATION •Na+ channels close, K+ channels remain open longer •more - inside, + outside •further drop in membrane potential • refractory period of neuron Saltatory conduction – a faster way • Depends on myelin sheaths coating an axon • Impulses carried from node to node • Advantages – Saves on ATP/energy – Increases the speed of conduction • Multiple sclerosis – demyelination of axons in the CNS Gap junctions and neurotransmitters Communication between neurons • Gap junctions form continuous passages between some neurons • Neurotransmitters cross the synapse to relay the impulse to another neuron or an effector stress hormone sympathetic NS mood, sexuality, metabolism learning and memory Diversity of nervous systems • Nerve cord – thick bundle of nerves from the brain • Ganglion – mass of neurons in the PNS Vertebrate nervous systems Evolutionary trends 1. Increase in overall brain size 2. Compartmentalization of functions 3. Increased development of the forebrain Vertebrate CNS • • Cephalized Centralized • Integration and processing of information • • White matter – axons in the CNS Gray matter – cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons • • • Central canal of the spinal cord Ventricles of the brain Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) • Meninges – protective connective tissue Vertebrate PNS • Transmits information to and from the CNS • Components – – – – Both sensory and motor functions Paired cranial nerves (12) Paired spinal nerves (31) Ganglia • Motor division – Somatic nervous system • Voluntary - signals to and from skeletal muscles • Respond to external stimuli – Autonomic nervous system • Involuntary - Internal environment, smooth and cardiac muscles • Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions Actions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the ANS • Sympathetic division – Stimulation – Energy generation • Parasympathetic division – Calming – Rest and repair • Often have antagonistic actions • Cooperate to maintain homeostasis Structure and function of the vertebrate brain Forebrain • Cerebrum – complex integrating center of the CNS, memory storage, “seat of consciousness” • Thalamus – sorts and relays sensory information to cerebrum, regulates emotion and arousal • Hypothalamus – regulator of homeostasis: hormones, thermostat, hunger and thirst, sexual response, fight or flight, pleasure, biological clock Midbrain • Inferior colliculi – auditory system • Superior colliculi – visual system Hindbrain • Pons - bridge between halves of cerebellum; coordinates activity of muscles on both sides; aids medulla; causes sleep • Medulla oblongata - respiratory and cardiac center; vomiting, sweating, gastric secretion, heartbeat • Cerebellum - regulates and controls muscle contractions; coordination, balance, equilibrium • Reticular formation – regulates sleep and arousal Spinal cord – receives information from skin and muscles and sends out motor commands for movement Other structures • Corpus callosum – band of fibers transferring information between cerebral hemispheres • Pituitary gland – “master gland,” releases hormones that regulate homeostasis Integrating centers in the cerebrum Right and left cerebral hemispheres • Cerebral cortex – Highly developed and convoluted in mammals – Lobes with sensory areas and association areas, frontal lobe with motor cortex • Basal nuclei – planning and learning movement sequences Other roles of the cerebral cortex • Language and speech – Broca’s area – Wernicke’s area • Emotions – Limbic system – amygdala, hippocampus, and olfactory bulb – Laughing, crying, aggression, feeding, and sexuality • Memory and learning – Short-term: frontal lobe – Long-term: amygdala and hippocampus – Neurons may make new connections • Consciousness – Emergent property based on activity in many areas of the cortex Drugs and the Nervous System Drug Effect on the NS Effect on the Body Alcohol (ethanol) CNS depressant Depends on dosage, FAS in babies Stimulants CNS and Sym division stimulant, more dopamine / adenosine/ norepinephrine / serotonin in the synapse Feelings of happiness and power, reduced fatigue, insomnia, psychosis, hallucinations, violent and aggressive behavior, tremors Depressants Barbiturates CNS depressant, action potentials cannot be produced Reduce respiration, bp, heart rate, anesthetic Opiates Heroin CNS depressant, mimic the effects of endorphins, stimulate pleasure center Analgesia, sedation, reduced respiration, Hallucinogens /psychedelics Mimic the effects of serotonin Vivid colors, heightened emotions, increase in heart rate and bp Marijuana Acts on cannabinoid receptors in the brain Altered sense of time and space, hallucinations Amphetamines Cocaine Caffeine Nicotine