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Chapter 3: Biological Bases of Behavior Heredity and Behavior Evolution and Natural Selection • Charles Darwin- The Origin of Species • Natural Selection- theory that favorable adaptations to features of the environment allow some members of a species to reproduce more successfully than others • What does this mean? Evolution and Natural Selection Over time organisms producing more favorable traits for survival will become more numerous than others AKA: Survival of the fittest Evolution and Natural Selection • Short-term effects: Evolution and Natural Selection • Long-term effects: Genotype vs. Phenotype Genotype Phenotype • Inherited genetic • Determines structure from observable parents appearance • Determines • Resulting from development and interaction between behavior genotype and environment Process of Natural Selection Environmental Pressure Competition Selection of Fittest Reproductive Success Frequency of Genotype Language • Most important milestone for human species Language • Vital for: • Instruction • Sharing experiences • Social Bonds • Transmitting wisdom Language • Basis for cultural evolution • Allows for rapid adjustments to environmental changes • Culture is possible because of the potential of human genotype changes Variation in Human Genotype • Heredity- the inheritance of physical and psychological traits from ancestors; transmission of traits from parents to offspring • Genetics- the study of heredity Basic Genetics • DNA is found in the nucleus of each human cell • DNA- the physical basis for genetic information • DNA is organized into genes • Genes- biological units of herdity Genes • Contain the instruction for phenotypic traits: (some examples) - body build - physical strength - intelligence • Found on chromosomes Sex Chromosomes • Contain coding for male or female characteristics • Mother contributes “X” chromosome • Father contributes “X” or “Y” chromosome • XX= female • XY= male Genes • 50% of genes in common with siblings • Set of genes is unique • Difference in genes and environment determine traits Goal • Important goal of psychology is to understand the balance between your genetics and your environment Genes and Behavior • Human behavior genetics- unites genetics and psychology to explore the relationship between inheritance and behavior Happiness • Researchers propose that happiness has a strong genetic component, less than an environmental component • Is happiness set at birth? Genes • Conclusion: Genes you receive from your parents have broader effects than determining hair and eye color Sociobiologists use evolutionary explanations to analyze social behavior and social systems Sad Brain Happy Brain • Read “Sad Brain, Happy Brain” and answer all questions on handout Biology and Behavior People to Know • Rene Descartes- French Philosopher - human action is mechanical reflex to environmental stimulation People to Know • Sir Charles Sherrington- discovered reflexes are direct connections between sensory and motor nerve fibers - nervous system involves increasing and decreasing neural activity People to Know • Santiago Ramon y Cajal- detected gaps between adjacent neurons and theorized how info flowed from one to another People to Know • Donald Hebb- believed the brain was integrated series of structures (cell assemblies) performing specific functions Neuroscience • Neuroscience- study of the brain and the links between brain activity and behavior Phineas Gage • Pre-accident: levelheaded, calm • Post-accident: hostile, impulsive, extremely emotional, obscene language Phineas Gage • Loss of tissue revealed the relationship between frontal lobes and control of emotional behavior Paul Broca • Studied brain’s role in language • Discovered area of brain connected to language- now known as “Broca’s area”- translates thoughts into speech or signs Lesions • Researchers began method of destroying or injuring brain tissue on purpose to study results • Damages are “lesions” • Experimental work on nonhumans only Lobes of the Brain Broca’s Area People to Know • Walter Hess- pioneered use of electrical currents in the brain - determined what part of the brain performs specific functions Recording Brain Activity • EEG- traces electrical activity of the brain • PET Scan- image produced by recording radioactivity emitted by cells during different activities • MRI- scan of brain using radio waves and magnetic fields • fMRI- combines PET and MRI The Nervous System Organization of Nervous System Brain Structures and Functions Brain • Brain- most important component of your CNS • Brain Stem- regulates the body’s basic life processes • Medulla- center for breathing, blood pressure and heart rate • Pons- connects spinal cord with brain Brain • Reticular Formation- arouses cerebral cortex to incoming sensory signals - responsible for consciousness and awakening from sleep - massive damage coma • Thalamus- channels incoming sensory into to appropriate area of cerebral cortex Brain • Cerebellum- attached at base of skull - responsible for body movement, posture, and equilibrium Brain Limbic System • Hippocampus- involved in the ability to acquire memories - injury can effect recall of memory • Amygdala- role in emotional control and formation of emotional memories Limbic System • Hypothalamus- regulates/maintains homeostasis, involved in motivated behavior • Equilibrium- consistency of the body’s internal conditions Cerebrum • Cerebrum- regulates brain’s higher cognitive and emotional functions; 2/3s of brain • Cerebral Cortex- outer surface • Corpus Callosum- nerve fibers connecting 2 hemispheres of cerebrum Cerebrum • Frontal Lobe- responsible for motor control and cognitive activitiesplanning, decision making, goal setting • Parietal Lobe- responsible for sensations, touch, pain, and temp; contains somatosensory complex Cerebrum • Occipital Lobe- contains primary visual cortex • Temporal Lobe- contains primary hearing Cerebrum • Motor Cortex- controls the actions of the body’s voluntary muscles • Somatosensory Cortex- processes information about temp, touch, body position, and pain; devoted to parts of body that provide sensory input (lips, tongue, thumb, index finger) Cerebrum • Auditory Cortex- receives information from both ears processes auditory info • Visual Cortex- devoted to visual input and transmits detailed visual info Cerebrum • Association Cortex- portion of the brain where high level brain process occur, such as planning and decision making occur Cerebrum Hemispheric Lateralization • Info from the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere - Vice versa • In most people this info is shared quickly between the two hemispheres via the corpus callosum Hemispheric Lateralization • Speech is controlled by the left hemisphere in most individuals • Speech is the most highly lateralized function of the brain • This doesn’t mean the left hemisphere is better! • Right hemi controls more manual tasks Hemispheric Lateralization • Conclusion: - The right hemisphere controls the left side of your body - The left hemisphere controls the right side of your body Who’s Better at What? • Look over the handout “Who’s Better at What?” • Respond to the following questions: - Do you agree/disagree with the info on the handout? - Are you a “left brain” or “right brain” person? Hemispheric Lateralization 1. Women have greater density of neurons in a portion of the temporal cortex involved in language 2. Different brain areas develop more strongly for men and women 3. Hemi’s of women’s brain shares more functions than men’s Neurons • Neuron- cell that receives, processes and transmits into to other cells Neurons PARTS: 1. Dendrites- receive incoming signals 2. Soma- cell body; contains nucleus; passes info to the axon 3. Axon- conducts info away from soma to the terminal buttons Neurons 4. Myelin Sheath- covers axon to increase speed of info - MS cells attack and deteriorate myelin sheath 5. Terminal Buttons- bulb-like structures through which neurons stimulate nearby glands, muscles, or other neurons; release neurotrans. Types of Neurons 1. Sensory (Afferent) Neurons- carry messages from sense receptor cells towards the CNS (sensitive to light and sound) 2. Motor (Efferent) Neurons- carry messages away from CNS towards muscles and glands 3. Interneurons (in brain)- relay messages from sensory neurons to other interneurons, or to motor neurons Glial Cells • Hold neurons in place • Housekeeping- clean-up damaged or dead neurons • Absorb excess neurotransmitters • Insulation- form the myelin sheath • Prevent toxic substances in blood from reaching brain cells Action Potentials • Neurons receive excitatory (“fire”) or inhibitory (“don’t fire”) inputs • Neural communication is produced by the flow of elec. charged particles – ions • Inactive/Resting State- more potassium ions inside, more sodium ions outside the neuron • Membrane of the cell has a pump to keep this in balance Action Potentials • Fluid inside the membrane has a slight negative charge (polarized) • This polarization = resting potential • When nerve cells get excitatory or inhibitory inputs the balance of ions will change Action Potential • Inhibitory inputs cause ion channels to work harder to keep the inside of cell negatively charged won’t fire • Excitatory inputs allow ion pump to allow sodium in which allows the cell to fire (sodium ions have a positive charge) Action Potentials • Action Potential begins when the inside of the cell is depolarized and sodium rushes into the cell makes the ion positively charged • A domino effect propels the action potential down the axon successive depolarization Action Potentials • Neuron returns to a resting state: when neuron becomes positive, channels that allowed sodium in close, channels that stopped potassium open Cell returns to negative charge and ready for next stimulation All or None! • “All or None”- action potential is not affected by increases in intensity of stimulation once threshold level is reached and is firing • If threshold is not reached no firing Refractory Period • Action potential has passed: 1. Absolute refractory period- no stimulation can generate another action potential 2. Relative refractory period- neurons will only fire in response to a stronger stimulus • This ensures that action potential will only travel in one direction can’t move backward b/c “earlier” parts of axon are in refractory state Synaptic Transmission 1. Action potential reaches terminal buttons 2. Synaptic vesicles rupture and neurotransmitters are released 3. Neurotransmitters disperse across synaptic cleft 4. Neurotransmitters attach to receptor molecules Synaptic Transmission • Neurotransmitters attach to the postsynaptic membrane only if 2 conditions are met: - the only neurotransmitter attached to that receptor molecule - shape of neurotransmitter must match the shape of the receptor molecule 5. Once job is complete detaches and decomposes or is reabsorbed