Download The Nervous System

Unit 3 Psychology
succeeding in the vce, 2017
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Some information and diagrams referred to in these notes comes from:
Edwards, Marangio, Moore, Blaher-Lucas, Ganino-Day (2016) Oxford Psychology: VCE
Units 3 & 4 3rd Edition Oxford University Press.
Grivas, J., Down, R., Letch, N. and Carter, L. (2010). Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 (4th ed.)
Macmillan Education: Melbourne.
Van Iersel, Blunden, Bradley, Park, Yancos, Young (2016) Nelson Psychology: VCE Units 3
& 4 3rd Edition. Thomson Nelson: Melbourne.
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2017-2021, Victorian Certificate of
Education Study Design, Victoria.
UNIT 3: HOW DOES EXPERIENCE AFFECT BEHAVIOUR
AND MENTAL PROCESSES?
On completion of this unit, students should be able to examine the functioning of the nervous
system to examine the contribution that classical and contemporary research has made to
the understanding of the structure and function of the nervous system, and to the
understanding of biological, psychological and social factors that influence learning and
memory.
Use these tables as checklists when revising. Tick off each dot point when you are satisfied
that you have thoroughly covered all of the information associated with that topic.
AREA OF STUDY 1:
HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ENABLE
PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING?
In this area of study, the student should be able to explain how the structure and function of
the human nervous system enables a person to interact with the external world and analyse
the different ways in which stress can affect nervous system functioning.
Key Knowledge Includes:

The roles of different divisions of the nervous system (central and peripheral nervous
systems and their associated sub-divisions) in responding to, and integrating and
coordinating with, sensory stimuli received by the body
The distinction between conscious and unconscious responses by the nervous system to
sensory stimuli, including the role of the spinal reflex
The role of the neuron (dendrites, axon, myelin and axon terminals) as the primary cell
involved in the reception and transmission of information across the synapse (excluding
details related to signal transduction)
The role of neurotransmitters in the transmission of neural information between neurons
(lock-and-key process) to produce excitatory effects (as with glutamate) or inhibitory effects
(as with gamma amino butyric acid [GABA])
The effects of chronic changes to the functioning of the nervous system due to interference
to neurotransmitter function, illustrated by the role of GABA in Parkinson’s disease.
Sources of stress (eustress and distress) including daily pressures, life events, acculturative
stress, major stress and catastrophes that disrupt whole communities
Models of stress as a biological process, with reference to Selye’s General Adaptation
Syndrome of alarm reaction (shock/counter shock), resistance and exhaustion, including the
‘fight-flight-freeze’ response and the role of cortisol
Models of stress as a psychological process, with reference to Richard Lazarus and Susan
Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (stages of primary and secondary
appraisal)
Context-specific effectiveness, coping flexibility and use of particular strategies (exercise
and approach and avoidance strategies) for coping with stress.
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AREA OF STUDY 2:
HOW DO PEOPLE LEARN AND REMEMBER?
In this area of study, students study the neural basis of memory and learning and examine
factors that influence the learning of new behaviours and the storage and retention of
information in memory. They consider the influence of biological, psychological and social
factors on the fallibility of memory.
Key Knowledge Includes:

Neural basis of learning and memory
Neural plasticity and changes to connections between neurons (including long-term
potentiation and long-term depression) as the fundamental mechanisms of memory
formation that leads to learning
The role of neurotransmitters and neurohormones in the neural basis of memory and
learning (including the role of glutamate in synaptic plasticity and the role of adrenaline in
the consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences).
Models to explain learning
classical conditioning as a three-phase process (before conditioning, during conditioning
and after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response, including stimulus
generalisation, stimulus discrimination, extinction and spontaneous recovery.
Operant conditioning as a three-phase model (antecedent, behaviour, consequence)
involving reinforcers (positive and negative) and punishment (including response cost) that
can be used to change voluntary behaviours, including stimulus generalisation, stimulus
discrimination and spontaneous recovery (excluding schedules of reinforcement)
Observational learning as a method of social learning, particularly in children, involving
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement
The ‘Little Albert’ experiment as illustrating how classical conditioning can be used to
condition an emotional response, including ethical implications of the experiment.
Process of memory
The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson-Shriffin) with reference to the function, capacity
and duration of sensory short-term and long-term memory
Interactions between specific regions of the brain (cerebral cortex, hippocampus,
amygdala and cerebellum) in the storage of long-term memories, including implicit and
explicit memories.
Reliability of memory
Methods to retrieve information from memory or demonstrate the existence of information
in memory, including recall, recognition, relearning and reconstruction
The effects of brain trauma on areas of the brain associated with memory and
neurodegenerative diseases, including brain surgery, anterograde amnesia and
Alzheimer’s disease
The factors influencing a person’s ability and inability to remember information, including
context and state dependent cues, maintenance and elaborative rehearsal and serial
position effect
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EXTRA NOTES ON THE AREAS OF STUDY FOR UNIT 3
Area of Study 1: How does the nervous system enable psychological functioning?
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Area of Study 2: How do people learn and remember?
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KEY SKILLS
A set of key skills considered essential to Psychology apply across Units 1 to 4. A number of
these key skills are linked to the research methodologies listed for each unit.
These skills include the ability to:

Key Skills Include:
Develop aims and questions, formulate hypotheses and make predictions:

Determine aims, research hypotheses, questions and predictions that can be tested

Identify and operationalise independent and dependent variables
Plan and undertake investigations:

Determine appropriate type of investigation: experiments (including use of control and
experimental groups); case studies; observational studies; self-reports; questionnaires;
interviews; rating scales; access secondary data, including data sourced through the
internet that would otherwise be difficult to source as raw or primary data through
fieldwork, a laboratory or a classroom

Use an appropriate experimental research design including independent groups,
matched participants, repeated measures and cross-sectional studies

Select and use equipment, materials and procedures appropriate to the investigation

Minimise confounding and extraneous variables by considering type of sampling
procedures, type of experiment, counterbalancing, single and double blind procedures,
placebos, and standardised instructions and procedures

Select appropriate sampling procedures for selection and allocation of participants
including random sampling, stratified sampling, convenience sampling and random
allocation of participants to groups
Comply with safety and ethical guidelines:

Understand the role of ethics committees in approving research

Apply ethical principles when undertaking and reporting investigations, including
consideration of the role of the experimenter, protection and security of participants’
information, confidentiality, voluntary participation, withdrawal rights, informed consent
procedures, use of deception in research, debriefing and use of animals in research

Apply relevant occupational health and safety guidelines while undertaking practical
investigations
Conduct investigations to collect and record data:

Work independently and collaboratively as appropriate and within identified research
constraints

Systematically generate, collect, record and summarise both qualitative and quantitative
data
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Analyse and evaluate data, methods and scientific models:

Process quantitative data using appropriate mathematical relationships and units

Organise, present and interpret data using tables, bar charts, line graphs, percentages,
calculations of mean as a measure of central tendency and understanding of standard
deviation as a measure of variation around the mean

Recognise the difference between statistics that describe a specific sample and the use
of statistics to make inferences about the population from which the data were drawn

Use basic principles of reliability and validity in evaluating research investigations
undertaken
Analyse and evaluate data, methods and scientific models (continued):

Explain the merit of replicating procedures and the effects of sample sizes in obtaining
reliable data

Evaluate investigative procedures and possible sources of bias, and suggest
improvements, with reference to identification of potential extraneous and confounding
variables including individual participant differences, non-standardised instructions and
procedures, order effects, experimenter effect and placebo effects

Explain how models are used to organise and understand observed phenomena and
concepts related to psychology, identifying limitations of the models

Distinguish between scientific and non-scientific ideas
Draw evidence-based conclusions

Determine to what extent evidence from an investigation supports the purpose of the
investigation, and make recommendations, as appropriate, for modifying or extending the
investigation

Draw conclusions consistent with evidence and relevant to the question under
investigation

Identify, describe and explain the limitations of conclusions, including identification of
further evidence required

Critically evaluate various types of information related to psychology from journal articles,
mass media and opinions presented in the public domain

Discuss the implications of research findings and proposals
Communicate and explain scientific ideas

Use appropriate psychological terminology, representations and conventions for
reporting research, including standard abbreviations, graphing conventions and the
components of a scientific report with reference to inclusion of an abstract, an
introduction and sections for method, results and discussion

Discuss relevant psychological information, ideas, concepts, theories and models and
the connections between them

Identify and explain formal psychological terminology about investigations and concepts

Use clear, coherent and concise expression

Acknowledge sources of information and use standard scientific referencing conventions
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AREA OF STUDY 1: HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
ENABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING?
KEY KNOWLEDGE: NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONING
The human nervous system is divided up into two major components: the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
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STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The human nervous system can be organised into two major divisions:

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
PNS
CNS

Comprised of the brain and spinal cord.

Includes all parts of the nervous system that lie
outside the brain and spinal cord.

The spinal cord connects the brain and the
PNS.

Links the CNS to all other parts of the body

Subdivided into the:
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
Somatic NS: Specialises in the control of
voluntary movements and the
communication of information to and from
the sense organs. Consists of sensory
neurons (carry information from receptors
to the CNS) and motor neurons (carry
information from CNS to muscles).

Autonomic NS: Specialises in connecting
the CNS to the body’s internal muscles,
organs and glands. Does not require
conscious control (automatic). Functions
continuously. Further subdivided into the:

Sympathetic NS: Activates internal
muscles, organs and glands to prepare the
body for activity (fight or flight response)

Parasympathetic NS: Counteracts the
activity initiated by the sympathetic NS to
return the body to a state of calm
(homeostasis)
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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Spinal cord has the thickness similar to that of your finger. The spinal cord runs down
the middle of your back and is protected by the bony vertebrae that you can feel as
bumps/lumps running down your back. Go ahead and feel your vertebrae – bumpy,
isn’t it! But it serves a very important function for the nervous system and that is to
protect the spinal cord (also important as part of the skeletal system).
http://health.allrefer.com/health/spinal-cord-trauma-vertebrae.html
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The spinal cord consists of millions of nerve fibres whose job it is to transmit neural
information between the brain and the rest of the body via the peripheral nervous system.
The nerves higher up in the spinal cord control the functions in the upper areas of the body
such as our breathing and arms, whereas those nerves exiting the spinal cord lower down
control the trunk, legs and internal organs such as the bladder and bowel.
The spinal cord consists of two main components. These are:

White matter – tracts of bundles of axons running the full length of the spinal cord.
The axons in the spinal cord are covered in a myelin which forms a white, protective
sheath around the axon. The myelin helps to ensure the speedy transmission of the
neural message along the axon.

Grey matter – located mainly near the centre of the spinal cord are the cell bodies with
their axons and dendrites which are not covered by a myelin sheath.
Think about a piece of electrical cable, maybe that which connects your computer or
TV to the power point in the wall. The outer plastic covering is like the myelin sheath
covering the axon and encased in this plastic covering are the wires (like the axon)
along which the electricity will flow to power your computer or TV.
The spinal cord has two main functions in connecting the brain to the other areas of the
body. These are that it:
1.
Passes sensory neural information from the sensory receptor organs and internal
organs of the body, via sensory neurons, from the peripheral nervous system to the
brain.
2.
Passes motor neural information from the brain to the peripheral nervous system
which activates the motor neurons bringing about movement of organs, glands and
skeletal muscles.
(Anatomedia: General Principles and Applications)
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QUESTION 1
The two main divisions of the human nervous system are the:
A
B
C
D
Brain and spinal cord
Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
Autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system
Peripheral nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
QUESTION 2
What is the role of the spinal cord in the human nervous system?
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BRAIN
Cerebral cortex
Midbrain
Spinal cord
Cerebellum
The human brain weighs approximately 1.5 kg and has the consistency of well-set jelly.
If you were to squeeze the brain it would turn to mush! Covering the brain is a membrane
which is a little like cling-wrap. For protection the brain is surrounded by a gap filled with fluid
that acts to protect the brain from colliding with the skull when the head suffers a blow or
rapid movement back-and-forth or side-to-side.
The brain has a ‘wriggly’ appearance and would appear to be pinkish grey in colour when it
is ‘alive’.
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STRUCTURE OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

The cerebral cortex is the outer convoluted (approximately 0.25 square meters of
cortex) covering of the cerebrum. It is the outermost layer of grey matter of the cerebral
hemispheres. (Grey matter – in this part of the brain there are many cell bodies,
dendrites and connecting axons which give the cerebral cortex a greyish colour.)
The convolutions are important as they increase the surface area of the brain. The
cerebral cortex is only approximately 3-4 mm thick, but contains most of the brain’s
neurons. It is believed to contain approximately three quarters of all the neurons in the
brain!

The cerebral cortex is involved in mental processes such as language, memory,
thinking and planning, problem-solving, bodily movements and learning. In fact, any
activity you choose to do will need your cerebral cortex!

There are three main areas in the cerebral cortex: sensory areas, motor areas and
association areas. Whilst the sensory and motor areas of the cortex have specific
functions, the largest areas (association areas) do not have such specific functions but
are involved in integrating information from all over the cortex and from other structures
within the brain to allow us to think and respond to our environment.

The size and complexity of the human cerebral cortex is what distinguishes our brains,
capable of speech and higher levels of thinking, from those of animals. It is our larger
cerebral cortex that allows us as humans to think, plan, problem-solve, and make
decisions.

The cerebrum has two halves, known as the cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere
is specialised in specific cognitive and behavioural functions. The left hemisphere
dominates verbal and analytical functions; the right hemisphere dominates non-verbal
functions such as spatial abilities. The hemispheres do not work in isolation as most
processes require both hemispheres to interact and are connected by the corpus
callosum.

The corpus callosum is a very large band of nerve fibres, containing over 200 million
axons, that is responsible for communicating information between the left and right
hemispheres of the cerebrum. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres of the
brain to behave in an interdependent manner when we are undertaking any activity –
from thinking, to eating, to making decisions, in fact in just about everything.
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
The cerebral cortex can be divided into four cortical lobes, each with differing primary
functions. The brain is the control centre for all human behaviour. Below is a diagram of
the main lobes/structures of the brain. Familiarise yourself with these areas (covered in
Unit 1 Psychology).
THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
This is the outer layer of the forebrain which contains ¾ of the brain’s neurons. It is folded to
increase cortical surface area. The cerebral cortex is responsible for voluntary movements,
language, memory, learning, thinking and solving complex problems. The cerebral cortex is
divided into two hemispheres (left and right) which each contain four lobes. The left and right
hemispheres are connected by a bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum.
Review brain functions from Unit 1 in table over page.
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Lobe
FRONTAL LOBE
Largest of the four lobes.
Structures
The structure only found
in the left frontal lobe is
_____________________
Located in the upper
forward half of each
hemisphere.
Function
Responsible for the production of articulate
speech (clear and fluent). Involved with
coordinating movements of the muscles
required for clear and fluent speech. If
damaged it results in Broca’s aphasia
(patients can understand language but
cannot speak in a clear and fluent manner).
Responsible for:



Higher mental
functioning: logical
thinking, planning and
reasoning
Receiving and coordinating messages
from other lobes
Motor control:
planning, initiating
and performing
voluntary movement
____________________
(located at the back of the
frontal lobe in both
hemispheres).
____________________
(all the rest of the lobe
other than the PMC and
Broca’s area in the LH).
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Controls voluntary bodily movements through
control of skeletal muscles. Different areas
along the cortex control different parts of the
body. Parts of the body with more ‘precise’
movement take up more space.
Responsible for the integration of sensory,
motor and other neural information between
the lobes. Responsible for higher mental
abilities such as reasoning, planning and
problem-solving. Also for personality and
displaying emotion.
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PARIETAL LOBE




Found at the top of
head – behind the
frontal lobe and
above the temporal
lobe.
Registers sensory
information (touch,
pressure, pain, temp.,
bodily movements).
Right parietal lobe
plays a key role in
spatial orientation
and perceiving 3D
shapes and designs.
_____________________
(located at the front of the
parietal lobe in both
hemispheres, directly
behind the PMC of the
frontal lobe)
_____________________
(all the rest of the lobe
other than the PSC)
Left parietal lobe
plays a role in the
ability to point to your
own body parts and
knowing where
something is in a
room. It is also
involved in reading,
writing and arithmetic
involving mental
manipulation.
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Receives and processes messages from the
sensory receptors in the skin (touch and
temperature. Parts of the body with greater
sensitivity and sensation take up more space.
Processes messages about muscle
movement and position.
Receives and combine neural information
from within the lobe and structures and areas
of the brain.
Attention and spatial reasoning.
Senses the position of body in space by
integrating neural information about the
body’s limb positions and movements with
information about vision transmitted from the
Primary Visual Cortex in the occipital lobe
and sound from the auditory cortex in the
temporal lobe.
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TEMPORAL LOBE


Side of the brain above ears
behind temple.
___________________
(left hemisphere only)
Primarily associated with
auditory perception,
language comprehension
and facial recognition.
___________________
(upper part of temporal
lobe – found in both
hemispheres)
___________________
(all the rest of the lobe
other than the Primary
auditory cortex and
Wernicke’s area in the left
hemisphere)
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Responsible for interpreting the
meaning of language. Involved in
interpreting sounds, especially of
human speech and giving these
sounds meaning. Also important for
locating words from memory. If
damages, results in Wernicke’s
aphasia will result an inability to
produce meaningful sentences.
Involved in processing auditory
information. Front responds to
sounds with low frequency and back
to sounds with high frequency.
Responsible for remembering and
perceiving features of our
environment. Plays an important role
for the processing of memory and is
directly connected to the
hippocampus (structure involved in
the formation of long-term
memories).
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OCCIPITAL LOBE

Positioned at the base of the
cerebral cortex.

Lobe where visual
information is received and
processed.
_____________________ Receives and processes visual
(located at the very back
information that is transmitted by the
of the occipital lobe)
eyes, along the optic nerve via the
optic chiasm to the brain.
Information from left visual field is
processed in right hemisphere and
information from right visual field is
processed in left hemisphere.
_____________________ Integrates and organises visual
information with information from
(all the rest of the lobe
other areas of the cerebral cortex
other than the PSC)
and sends neural information to
other areas of brain for
interpretation.
QUESTION 3
The outer layer of the human brain consisting of neural tissue is the:
A
B
C
D
Primary visual cortex
The cerebral cortex
The association cortex
The corpus callosum
QUESTION 4
The part of the human brain that contains almost three-quarters of the brain’s neurons, and
that is responsible for reasoning, planning and imagining is the:
A
B
C
D
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Cerebral cortex
Cerebral hemisphere
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QUESTION 5
Which statement relating to the cerebral cortex is incorrect?
A
B
C
D
The cerebral cortex is approximately 3 mm thick.
The wrinkled nature of the cerebral cortex decreases its surface area.
The cerebral cortex covers most of the forebrain.
The cerebral cortex is divided into 4 lobes.
QUESTION 6 (REVIEW FROM UNIT 1)
Visual information is first transmitted to the __________________ for processing.
A
B
C
D
Primary visual cortex
Association areas
Primary auditory cortex
Secondary visual cortex
QUESTION 7 (REVIEW FROM UNIT 1)
For most people, a function that is performed mainly by the right hemisphere is:
A
B
C
D
Controlling speech
Receiving and processing sensations from the right side of the body
Detecting emotions.
Evaluating problems.
QUESTION 8 (REVIEW FROM UNIT 1)
Lee is reading his psychology text book. Which part of the brain plays the most crucial role in
helping him comprehend what is written?
A
B
C
D
Broca’s area
Wernicke’s area
Occipital lobe
Parietal lobe
QUESTION 9 (REVIEW FROM UNIT 1)
Planning, reasoning and logical thinking are major functions of the __________ lobe.
A
B
C
D
Temporal
Occipital
Parietal
Frontal
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THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Human Nervous System
Central Nervous
System transmits
messages to the body via
the PNS and receives
them from PNS.
Peripheral Nervous
System carries messages
to and from the CNS.
Brain
Spinal Cord
organises,
integrates,
initiates, and
interprets
neural
messages.
connects brain
and the
peripheral
nervous
system.
Cerebral
Cortex
Autonomic
Nervous
System carries
messages from
CNS to modify
or change
activity in
muscles, organs
and glands in
PNS
Sympathetic
Sympathetic
Nervous
Nervous
System
System
activates
internal
activates
internal
muscles,
organs
organs
and muscles,
glands enabling
glands
body and
to deal
with
enabling
bodyor
to
strenuous
activity
deal with
threat.
strenuous
activity or threat.
Somatic Nervous
System carries
sensory messages
from PNS to CNS,
and controls
voluntary
movement of
skeletal muscles via
messages sent
from CNS to PNS.
Parasympathetic
Nervous System
maintains a
balanced internal
body state, and
returns body to
calm state after
activation of the
sympathetic
nervous system.
The human nervous system is organised into different divisions based on the main functions
carried out. These two divisions are the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
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In the space mark in, label and distinguish between the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the system of all other nerves in the human
body).
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THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE NEURON
The human nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and all of the other nerves
which connect to our muscles and organs. It functions very much like a huge communication
centre with networks relaying information to and from the command centre (the brain). The
nervous system allows us to interact with and understand the external world and the internal
world of our bodies. It transmits information to the brain from all of our senses to allow the
brain to interpret the incoming information and respond. The brain responds to this incoming
sensory information by transmitting messages initiating action or movement as required in
nerves in different areas of our bodies.
The human nervous system is made up of billions of neurons each linking with other neurons
at trillions of connection points called synapses. These connections between neurons are
referred to as neural pathways. Neural pathways allow the transmission of neural information
between neurons and throughout the body and brain.
A neuron is simply a single nerve cell. Every activity you engage in relies on neurons which
are organised in precise networks communicating with each other and the brain. Even the
simple act of picking up your pen to write your name involves messages being transmitted
from the brain via the spinal cord to the peripheral nervous system to activate the muscles in
your arm and hand to pick up the pen. Of course there is much more involved in this simple
action, and the neurons in many different areas of the brain are called into action to allow
you to effectively pick up the pen and write your name.
Can you list all the different areas of brain activity that you think would need to be
activated to allow you to write your name?
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TYPES OF NEURONS
Nerve impulses are responsible for the way information is transmitted from one neuron to
another throughout the nervous system in a rapid manner. Neurons are able to communicate
through bodily chemicals called neurotransmitters which are released at connection points
between neurons called synapses. When neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap they
attach themselves to receptor sites on the dendrites of the next neuron. If there are enough
neurotransmitters the pre-synaptic neuron will fire an impulse and the neural message will
be transmitted across the gap and be received by the post-synaptic neuron. This same
process will be repeated along the neural pathway until the neural impulse reaches its
destination.
There are three main types of neurons (or nerve cells) found in the human nervous system.
These are sensory neurons (also referred to as afferent neurons), motor neurons (also
referred to as efferent neurons) and interneurons. Each of these types of neurons exhibit a
very similar structure. The diagram below shows a typical neuron structure:
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The main parts of the neuron that you need to be aware of the function of are:
Dendrites:
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Soma:
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Axon:
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Axon terminals:
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Myelin:
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Synapse:
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QUESTION 10
On the diagram of the neuron label the main parts and indicate the direction of the neural
transmission.

Sensory (or afferent) neurons are specialist neurons that detect and
transfer sensory information away from the body’s sense organs in the
PNS via the spinal cord to the brain in the CNS for processing.

Interneurons transmit neural information between sensory and motor neurons.
Sensory and motor neurons do not make direct connections with each other.
Interneurons are the most numerous neurons and are only found within the CNS.

Motor (or efferent) neurons are specialist neurons which transfer
motor information away from the CNS to the muscles, organs and
glands in the PNS to enable bodily movement, activation of internal
organs and glandular secretions.
Most textbooks tend to show an image of a motor neuron when asking to label or show
direction of the neural impulse.
Just like a mobile phone has a SIM card, so does the neural network: Sensory neurons,
Interneurons, Motor neurons
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These three types of neurons are highly specialised and only perform the specific role
outlined above. Motor neurons are specialised to convey messages away from the brain to
the body’s skeletal muscles to produce movement. Sensory neurons are specialised to carry
messages away from the sensory receptors scattered throughout the body to the brain for
processing.
It may help you to recall the difference between sensory and motor neurons
and the direction they transmit neural information by remembering:
SAAMEE:
Sensory (Afferent nerves) Arrive at CNS for processing.
Motor (Efferent nerves) Exit the CNS to initiate a response.
QUESTION 11
Explain the role of afferent nerves in the human nervous system, compared to efferent
nerves.
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QUESTION 12
The neurons that are responsible for transmitting neural information from the central nervous
system to the peripheral nervous system are known as:
A
B
C
D
Motor or afferent neurons
Sensory or afferent neurons
Motor or efferent neurons
Sensory or efferent neurons
QUESTION 13
The correct sequence in which information travels along a neural pathway is:
A
B
C
D
Dendrite, synapse, neurotransmitter, axon.
Synapse, neurotransmitter, axon, dendrite.
Axon, dendrite, synapse, neurotransmitter.
Dendrite, axon, synapse, neurotransmitter.
QUESTION 14
Explain the role of the axon terminals in the process of transmission of a neural message.
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QUESTION 15
In the space below, draw and label the key structures of a neuron, showing the direction of
the neural impulse.
QUESTION 16
Go to https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/reacttime.html and conduct reaction time
experiment.
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THE SYNAPSE
The message that is passed along the neuron is electrical, but neurons don’t actually touch
each other. There is a small gap between them called a synapse. When the signal travels
across this gap, it is sent as a chemical signal using neurotransmitters.
Additional notes:
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Neurotransmitters are…

Chemicals that are released from a synaptic vesicle into the synapse by neurons.

They affect the transfer of an impulse to another nerve or muscle.

These neurotransmitters are “taken back up” into the terminal buttons of neurons
through the process of reuptake.
Synapse: The gap between the end of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron.
SYNAPSE BETWEEN 2 NEURONS
Pre-synaptic neuron
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Post-synaptic neuron
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What you need to label:
1.
Direction of impulse
2.
Axon terminal
3.
Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter
4.
Synaptic gap (synapse)
5.
Dendrite
6.
Receptor site
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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
The peripheral nervous system is comprised of all neurons outside the central nervous
system and includes almost all nerves in the body with the exception of the spinal cord and
the cranial nerves of the skull (these enter the brain directly, not via the spinal cord).
The peripheral nervous system provides the pathway for two-way communication between
the brain and spinal cord and all other glands, organs and parts of the body.
The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous systems work together. It is the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) that carries the sensory neural information from the
various areas of the body to the central nervous system (CNS), and the CNS that transmits
and carries via the spinal cord, motor information to the rest of the body.
Think of one activity you have performed today and in the space below describe the
activity of the CNS and the PNS required to complete the activity.
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The peripheral nervous system is divided into two divisions with different functions:
1.
Somatic nervous system – transports messages between the sense organs (sensory
receptors) and the spinal cord via connections with the skeletal muscles, and controls
voluntary body movements. (NB: somatic nervous system DOES NOT control any of
the non-skeletal muscles such as heart, stomach, lungs, etc.)

Sensory function – afferent neurons transmit information from sensory receptors
located around the body to the brain.

Motor function – efferent neurons transmit information from the motor cortex away
from the CNS to enable the movement of the skeletal muscles (muscles attached
to the skeleton). Note that during REM sleep there appears to be a blockage which
stops these messages from the motor cortex reaching the somatic nervous system
and the skeletal muscles become almost totally inactive.
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2.
Autonomic nervous system (autonomic means involuntary) – network of neurons
connecting the CNS to internal muscles and organs. Functions continuously. Controls
all the automatic functions such as breathing, digestion, blood flow, arousal levels and
all other automatic functions. Controls non-skeletal muscles controlling the activity of
vital internal organs and glands. Controls the fight/flight response.
Most autonomic functions occur without any conscious control, but some can be easily
controlled and some others can be controlled with training. E.g. blinking can be easily
controlled whilst with training in yoga or meditation can provide control of some of these
functions. Biofeedback (where the individual receives feedback about a particular
internal bodily function such as heart rate, respiration etc.) can be used to control some
functions (most often used for reducing symptoms of stress). Assists people to learn to
control their physiological responses.
Autonomic nervous system has two branches:

The sympathetic nervous system is the division of the autonomic nervous
system that regulates the activity of internal muscles, organs and glands so the
body is energised and prepared for action in times of high arousal. Under stressful
or threatening situations, the sympathetic nervous system functions as a survival
mechanism. It activates the adrenal glands to secrete the hormones adrenalin and
noradrenalin that act on specific cells to increase blood pressure, respiration rate
and heart rate to maximise the amount of oxygen supplied to the muscles that
need to work. Sugar and fat are released instantly to supply the energy to the
skeletal muscles for rapid movement. Some physiological functions not required in
dealing with the immediate threat reduce their activity (e.g. digestion, urine
production, immune system function).

The parasympathetic nervous system is the division of the autonomic nervous
system that calms the body after times of vigorous activity or the need for high
arousal has passed, and maintains the body in a state of homeostasis (the body’s
balanced and healthy state).
Two main functions are:
1.
Return the body to a clam state by reversing the direction of the changes to
physiological functions that were activated by the sympathetic nervous
system.
2.
Minimise energy use and keep the internal systems of the body constantly
regulated in a state of homeostasis.
The parasympathetic nervous system is usually dominant in everyday functioning (digestion,
elimination of wastes, etc.). The actions of the sympathetic nervous system are instant with
the release of the hormones into the bloodstream, but these tend to linger in the blood
stream resulting in the actions of the sympathetic nervous system occurring over an
extended period of time.
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THE ‘FIGHT-FLIGHT-FREEZE’ RESPONSE
When the brain perceives an experience as a threat to the organism the sympathetic
nervous system is activated and this prepares the body to deal with the stressor. When
activated the adrenal glands release hormones adrenalin and noradrenalin. These cause the
heart, lungs, sweat glands and gall bladder to increase activity, and the stomach, salivary
glands and bladder to decrease activity.
This response energises the body in preparation for flight (allowing the organism to flee) or
fight, (allowing the organism to confront) the stressor, or the organism may become
paralysed in the face of danger, like the stunned ‘deer in the headlights’. This response is
known as the ‘fight-flight-freeze’ response. The fight-flight-freeze response is activated via
the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, a self-regulating system involving the
sympathetic nervous system and adrenal glands.
When the perceived threat has passed the parasympathetic nervous system reverses the
above activity, and returns the body to a state of homeostasis.
QUESTION 17
The primary function of the autonomic nervous system is:
A
B
C
D
The control of the skeletal muscles.
The regulation of the visceral muscles.
To provide biofeedback to the brain.
To coordinate the activity of the adrenal glands.
QUESTION 18
When experiencing the fight-flight-freeze response the:
A
Sympathetic nervous system will be activated and will decrease the activities of the
sweat glands, bladder and intestinal system.
B
Parasympathetic nervous system will be activated and will decrease the activities of the
sweat glands, bladder and intestinal system.
C
Sympathetic nervous system will be activated and will increase the activities of the
sweat glands, heart and lungs.
D
Parasympathetic nervous system will be activated and will increase the activities of the
bladder, intestinal system and salivary glands.
QUESTION 19
Our voluntary movements are controlled through:
A
B
C
D
The autonomic nervous system.
The muscular nervous system.
The sympathetic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system.
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QUESTION 20
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of:
A
B
C
D
The somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
The brain and spinal cord.
The brain and vertebrae.
The brain and somatic nervous system.
QUESTION 21
Your heart keeps beating even though you may be unconscious because the autonomic
nervous system (ANS) is:
A
B
C
D
Self-regulating and not dependent on voluntary control by the brain.
Self-regulating and not dependent on involuntary control by the brain.
Mainly controlled by the motor cortex.
Mainly controlled by the cerebral cortex.
QUESTION 22
Karina was attending a concert performed by the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra. Describe
with reference to the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system how Karina
would be able to process this experience.
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QUESTION 23
Identify the major functions of the autonomic nervous system.
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QUESTION 24
Using an example explain the function of the parasympathetic nervous system.
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SUCCEEDING IN THE VCE 2017
UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGY
STUDENT SOLUTIONS
FOR ERRORS AND UPDATES, PLEASE VISIT
WWW.TSFX.COM.AU/VCE-UPDATES
QUESTION 1
Answer is B
QUESTION 2
The main role of the spinal cord in the human nervous system is to allow for neural
communication between the brain and peripheral nervous system. Sending neural
information to the brain for processing (via sensory neurons) and sending neural information
from the brain for initiation a response in the PNS (via motor neurons). Another role is the
spinal reflex.
QUESTION 3
Answer is B
QUESTION 4
Answer is C
QUESTION 5
Answer is B
QUESTION 6
Answer is A
NB: Question is asking about pain threshold and therefore B is correct as there has been a
distortion in Gerard’s perception of pain.
QUESTION 7
Answer is C
QUESTION 8
Answer is B
QUESTION 9
Answer is D
QUESTION 10
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QUESTION 11
Afferent nerves are sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from sensory stimuli
towards the central nervous system and brain, while efferent nerves are motor neurons
that carry neural impulses away from the central nervous system and towards muscles to
cause movement.
QUESTION 12
Answer is C
QUESTION 13
Answer is D
QUESTION 14
Axon terminals are stimulated by an action potential to release the neurotransmitters that are
stored within the vesicles found in the axon terminal.
QUESTION 15
QUESTION 16
This refers to an online prac. Individual results will differ. Discuss extraneous variables, etc.
QUESTION 17
Answer is B
QUESTION 18
Answer is C
QUESTION 19
Answer is D
QUESTION 20
Answer is B
QUESTION 21
Answer is A
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QUESTION 22
The auditory sensory information would be detected by Karina’s sensory registers in her
peripheral nervous system and then transmitted to the brain via sensory neurons.
The auditory information would be received and processed in the primary auditory cortex in
the temporal lobe in the central nervous system.
The visual sensory information (watching the orchestra) would be detected in the retina by
photoreceptors and sent to the occipital lobe (primary visual cortex) for processing also.
Information would also be processed in the association areas and linked to other parts of the
brain to allow Karina to appreciate the full experience of the music.
QUESTION 23
The autonomic nervous system is self-regulating – consisting of the parasympathetic and
sympathetic branches responsible for the communication between the body’s visceral (nonskeletal) muscles and the internal organs and glands.
QUESTION 24
The main function of the Parasympathetic NS is to both maintain a level of homeostasis or to
calm the body down after a threat or arousing experience.
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