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Neuroscience and Behavior Chapter 2 Biological psychology Specialized branch of psychology that studies the relationship between behavior and bodily processes and systems; also called biopsychology Neuroscience The study of the nervous system, especially the brain Neuron Highly specialized cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical formula, a nerve cell Glial Cells Support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes; manufactures myelin. Sensory Neuron Type of neuron that conveys information to the brain from specialized receptor cells in the sense organs and internal organs. Motor neuron Type of neuron that signals muscles to relax or contract. Interneuron Type of neuron that communicates information from one neuron to the next. Cell body The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus Dendrites Multiple short fibers that extend from the neuron’s cell body and receive information from the other neurons or from sensory receptor cells Axon The long, fluid filled tube that carries a neuron’s messages to other body areas. Myelin sheath A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increase their communication speed. Action potential A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron. Stimulus Threshold The minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron. Resting Potential State in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its messages if it receives sufficient stimulation All-or-Nothing The principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur Synapse The point of communication between two neurons Synaptic Gap The tiny space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of an adjoining neuron Axon termainals Branches at the end of the axon that contains tiny pouches, or sacs, called synaptic vesicles Synaptic transmission Tiny pouches or sacs In the axon terminals that contain chemicals called neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter Chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron Synaptic transmission The process through which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, cross the synaptic gap, and affect neurons Reuptake The process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from a postsynaptic neurons and are reabsorbed by a presynaptic neuron so they can be recycled and used again. Acetycholine Neurotransmitter that causes muscles contraction and is involved in memory functions Dopamine Neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of bodily movement, thought processes, and rewarding sensation Serotonin Neurotransmitter involved in sleep and emotions Norepinephrine Neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory; also a hormone manufactured by adrenal glands GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acids) Neurotransmitter that usually communicates an inhibitory message Endorphins Neurotransmitter that regulates pain perception Nervous System The primary internal communication network of the body; divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system Nerves Bundles of neuron axons that carry information in the peripheral nervous system Central nervous system Division of the neurons system that consists of the Brian and spinal cord. Spinal Reflexes Simple, automatic behaviors that are processed in the spinal cord. Peripheral nervous system Division of the nervous system that includes all the nerves lying outside the central nervous system Somatic Nervous System Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that communicates sensory information to the central nervous system and carries motor messages from the central nervous system to the muscles Autonomic Nervous System Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions Sympathetic Nervous System Branch of the autonomic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats. Parasympathetic Nervous System Branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal bodily functions and conserves the body’s physical resources. Endocrine System System of glands located throughout the body secrete hormones into the blood stream. Hormones Chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands. Pituitary Glands Endocrine gland attached to the base of the brain that secrets hormones that affect the functional of the other glands as well as hormones that act directly on physical processes. Adrenal land Pair of endocrine glands that are involved in the human stress response Adrenal Cortex The outer portion of the adrenal glands. Adrenal medulla The inner portion of the adrenal gland; secrets epinephrine and norepinephrine Gonads The endocrine glands that secrete hormones that regulate sexual characteristics and reproductive processes; ovaries in females and testes in males Phrenology A discredited pseudoscientific theory of the brain that claimed that personality characteristics. Moral character, and intelligence could be determined by examining the bumps on a person’s skull Cortical localization The notion that different functions are located or localized in different areas of the brain; also referred to as localization of function Electroencephalograph An instrument that produces a graphic record of the brain’s electrical activity by using electrodes placed on the scalp Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) An imaging technique that provides threedimensional, highly detailed images of the brain using electrical signals generated by the brain in response to magnetic field Positron Emission Tomography (PET) An imaging technique that provides colorcoded images of brain activity by measuring the amount of a radioactive compound, glucose, or oxygen used in different brain regions. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) An imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain’s blood supply during different mental activities. Cognitive Neuroscience The study of the neural basis of cognitive process that integrates contribution from psychology, neuroscience, and computer science. Neurogenesis The development of new neurons Brainstem A region of the brain made up of the hindbrain and the midbrain Hindbrain A region at the base of the brain that contains several structures that regulate basic life functions Medulla a hindbrain structure that controls vital life functions such as breathing and circulation Pons A hindbrain structure that connects the medulla the the two sides of the cerebellum; helps coordinate and integrate movements on each side of the body Cerebellum A large, two-sided hindbrain at the back of the brain responsible for muscle coordination and maintaining posture and equilibrium Reticular formation A network of nerve fibers located in the center of the medulla that helps regulate attention, arousal, and sleep; also called activating system Midbrain The middle and smallest brain region, involved in processing auditory and visual sensory information Substantia nigra An area in of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons Forebrain The largest and most complex brain region, which contains the centers for complex behaviors and mental processes Cerebral Cortex The wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain, which contains the most sophisticated brain centers Cerebral hemispheres The nearly symmetrical left and right halves of the cerebral cortex Corpus callosum A thick band of nerve fibers that connect the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them Temporal Lobe An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving are for auditory information Occipital Lobe An area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that is the primary receiving area for visual information Parietal Lobe An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex located above the temporal lobe that processes somatic sensation. Frontal Lobe The largest lobe of each cerebral hemisphere; processes voluntary muscle movements and is involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control. Limbic system A group of forebrain structures that form a border around the brainstem and are involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory Hippocampus A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming memories Thalamus A forebrain structure that processes sensory information for all sense, except smell, and relays it to the cerebral cortex Hypothalamus A peanut-sized forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and regulates behaviors related to survival, such as eating, drinking, and sexual activities Amygdala An almond-shaped forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in emotional and memory Cortical localization The notion that different functions are located or localized in different areas of the brain Lateralization of function The notion that specific psychological or cognitive functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain. Aphasia The partial or complete inability to articulate ideas or understand spoken or written language because or brain injury or damage Split-brain operation A surgical procedure that involves cutting the corpus callosum Structural plasticity A phenomenon in which brain structures physically change in response to environmental influences Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880) French surgeon and neuron anatomist who in 1861 discovered an area on the lower left frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex that, when damaged, produces speech disturbances but no loss of comprehension Roger Sperry ( 1913-1994) American psychologist who received the Nobel Prize on 1981 for pioneering research on brain specialization in split-brain patients. Karl Wernicke (1848-1905) German neurologist who in 1874 discovered an area on the left temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex that, when damaged, produces meaningless or nonsensical speech and difficulties in verbal or written comprehension