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Chapter 2 Neuroscience and Behavior Biological Psychology branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologist, or biopsychologists Neuron a nerve cell the basic building block of the nervous system Dendrite bushy, branching extensions of a neuron-- receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body Axon the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers-- messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands Myelin Sheath a layer of fatty cells encasing the fibers of many neurons Neural Communication Action Potential a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon generated by the movement of positively charges atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane Threshold the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Synapse junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap Neurotransmitters chemical messengers that travel the synaptic gaps between neurons when released by the sending neuron, neuro-transmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron--influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse Acetylcholine a neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction. Has role in learning and memory Endorphins natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters; linked to pain control and to pleasure The Nervous System Neurons communicating with other neurons form body’s primary system-- nervous system. body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system; consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems Major divisions of the nervous system Central Nervous System (CNS) the brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) links the central nervous system with the body’s sense receptors, muscles, and glands. sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body Nerves neural “cables” containing many axons part of the peripheral nervous system connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs Sensory neurons-- send information from the body’s tissues and sensory organs inward to the brain and spinal cord, which process the information. Motor neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands, body’s tissues. Interneurons in the CNS communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs. Somatic Nervous System-- the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles. Autonomic Nervous System--the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart) a dual self-regulating system--influences the glands and muscles of internal organs. Sympathetic Nervous System division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations Parasympathetic Nervous System division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy The sympathetic nervous system arouses; the parasympathetic nervous system calms. Reflex simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus The Brain Brainstem oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull responsible for automatic survival functions Medulla base of the brainstem controls heartbeat and breathing Reticular Formation a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal Thalamus the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla Receives information from all the senses except smell and sends it to the higher brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching Cerebellum the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; coordinates movement output and balance and helps process sensory information. It enables one type of nonverbal learning and memory and helps us judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminate sounds and textures. Methods used to explore functioning and structures of the brain: Lesion tissue destruction Electroencephalogram (EEG) Provides an electrical recording of the brain that is produced by the firing of the neurons. an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface; waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task With the use of radioactive water into the bloodstream, the PET scan can identify active areas of the brain and examine the brain at work. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain fMRI - A powerful magnetic field is utilized in order to show structure and functioning of the brain. The Brain Limbic System a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. Amygdala two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion Hypothalamus neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities eating drinking body temperature Cerebral Cortex the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres the body’s ultimate control and information processing center Frontal Lobes--just behind the forehead, involved in speaking, muscle movements, and planning and making judgments. Parietal Lobes at the top of head and toward the rear, receive sensory input for touch and body position. Occipital Lobes at the back of the head, include visual areas. which receive visual information from the opposite visual field Temporal Lobes , just above the ears, include auditory areas include the auditory areas Each lobe performs many functions and interacts with other areas of the cortex. Motor Cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements Sensory Cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations Association Areas More intelligent animals have increased “uncommitted” or association areas of the cortex Specialization and Integration hemisphere’s special functions--called hemispheric specialization or lateralization Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking words Brain Reorganization Plasticity the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development Research indicates that some neural tissue can reorganize in response to damage. When one brain area is damaged, others may in time take over some of its function Divided Brain Corpus Callosum large band of neural fibers; connects the two brain hemispheres; carries messages between the hemispheres The information highway from the eye to the brain Split Brain a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them