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İntroduction to Psychology
Prof. Dr. Müfit Uğur
What is Psychology
• Psychoylogy is the science which defines human
behavior and human cognitive functions scientifically.
• Animals also have psychologies. ( they think ,dream etc).
• Behaviors are main topics.
• How we lough ,become angry or feel happy.
Branches of psychology
• Clinical psychology
• School psychology
• Counselling psychology
• İndustrial psychology
• Experimental psychology
• Social psychology
• Developmental psychology
• Psychometric psychology
Forerunners of psychology
• Wundt-introspection
• Freud –ego
• Watson-behavior
• Adler- self psyc
• Jung-collec sub con.
• Erich Fromm - Environment family.
Wundt Psychology
• Focused on perception of sensations,
• According to him human pschology was one’s
conciousness about the surrounding.
• Colour vision perception
• Tactile perception
• Time perception
• He defined the method of İntrospection in which one
was feeling the events ,than lived the events, than make
some assumptions about what he has done.
• He worked on reaction time and related perceptions.He
also calculated reaction time duration under different
circumstances.
Freud Psychology
• He lived during 1856-1939,
• He proposed the theories of Psyhoanalytical psychiatry,
• İn this psyhoanalytical psychiatry ,Freud worked mainly
on subconciousness,
• According to him these subconcious material was
resulting in specific human behaviors,
• Humans ego was in the need of continuos gratification
need.
• Repressed material to subconcious results in our
involuntary movementes ,stammerings, stutterings
speeches and dreams
• His theories mainly based on id- ego and superego
dynamics.
Watson Psychology
• According to him psychology was human behaviors• Heredity does not have adequate effects on human
behaviors,
• Human behaviors are regulated by the environment.
• Hereditary characters and insincts were not so important
• To him all behaviors must be fully measurable
• Test groups must be evaluated objectively and their
evaluations must be considered with control groups.
• Watson psychology was named under “Behavioral
psychology”.
Adler Psychology
• His theories are mainly based on one’ superiority
• His proposals are that ego always wants to be superior
in the environment
• This feeling of superiority sometimes motivates the
behavior but sometimes if expectations are to much ,
this can cause some disasters in one’s living
• So expectations must be in balance
Jung- Fromm psychology
• Jung has postulated some theories on the collective
subconcious.
• All nations have collective motivations whether they live
in America or in Africa or in Asia
• These motivations stem from one origin which is in the
deep parts of the subconcious
Fromm postulates:
• Family is important,
• Love and graification is important,
• Courage are important motives so family interactiorns
are important.
Merkez Sinir sistemi Nöroanatomik oluşumları
Frontal lobe
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Posterior border : Sulcus centralis
Medial border : Fissura longitudinalis superior
Bottom :Sylvian fissure
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İt regulates the sensory and motor inputs and makes the associations
between them
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Subparts of the lobe:
– Medial pqrefrontal cortex
– Lateral prefrontal cortex
– Orbitofrontal cortex
Prefrontal Korteks
Prefrontal cortex
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Medial prefrontal cortex
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Amygdala
– Hippocampus
– Limbic lobe ( Regulates affect of the behaviors,drives, instincts,motivations)
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Lateral Prefrontal cortex
– Regulates the executive functions of the frontal lobe
– Regulates the high ordered behaviors
– Regulates to form plans and regulates its aplications to daily life
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Orbitofrontal cortex
– İt regulates the conditioned reflexes
Prefrontal korteks
Parietal lobe
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İt is located posteriorly of the frontal lobe
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İt colects the sensory inputs from the body or from the environment
İt makes resolutions about their meanings
İt gathers the input from the surrounding together
İt gives a rational meaning to them
İt stores the knowledge about them
İt controls the executive functions of the frontal lobe and executes them in a
rational way
Temporal lobe
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İt is dorsallay sorrunded by fissura longituoinalis superior,
its inferomedial border is hippocampus,
Below the temporal lobe amygdala and uncus is located.
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İt is the association are of auditory signals from the surrounding,
İt regğulates the auditory signals from the environment ,
Regulates the memory and signals from the surrounding is encoded by it
Associates the speech ve visual signals and behaves ( speakes) according
to these signals
Regulates the affective signals of the surrounding , so speech is also
related with the affective tone of the stimuli
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Occipital lobe
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Occipital lobe is mainly related with visual signals from the surrounding, and
visual signals project to the calcarine fissure which is on the occipital lobe,
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So it is the main visual projection area of the brain
İt also makes asssociations between the figures;
– colour
– Shape
– Movement
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İt is also important in longitudinal dimensional perception
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Occipital lobe is important ,it makes associations between the speech and
object relations
Parieto temporal cortex
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İt makes associations between auditory signals, visual signals and
somatosensorial signals
İt is important in multidimensional perception
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İt is also important in the regulation of speech and also regulates abstract
thinking and abstract speech.
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İmportant in problem solving
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İmportant in the resolution of the confused cognitive processes
Cerebral cortex
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İt regulates the motor and and sensory signals of the brain
Most important motor regulatory center is Broca center and its pathology
lasts speech arrest and it is called Motor aphasia
Most important sensory center is the wernicke center and its pathology is
related with sensorial aphasia. So the patient can not find words to speak
Agraphia is resembling the pathology in which sensorial thinking can not be
written as words
Alexia resembles the pathology in which the patient does not uhderstand
what he reads
Acalculia resembles not having the ability to make calculations
Agnosia is the pathology in which one cannot recognize objects with closed
eye either with touching or grasping it.
Prefrontal cortex
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İt is located in the frontal lobe anteriorly,
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Makes regulations between the inputs from the surrounding so the persons
behavior will be socially adaptive. This is called Regulations of the insight.
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Maintains optimum arrousal for adequate interpersonal relations,object
relations
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İmportant in accumulation of attention to a specific target person or an object
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İt measures the signals from the surrounding and also decides their probable
end results or the risk of the situation.
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İt provides elasticity in our thinking and behaviors towards others
Basal ganglia
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İt makes up the extrapyramidal system and it is located subcortically.
İts main purpose is to regulate and control our involuntary movements
İn case of Chorea spontaneous involuntary movements of the extremites of
the body
Athetozis some involuntary movements are out of control especially in the
hand and the fingers
Ballismus is the involuntary spasms of the extremities of the body
Rigidity is the increase in the tonus of the muscles so the muscles cannot
make any movement
Bradykinesia is the slowing down of the movements of the extremites,
İts pathologies result in;
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Wilson disease
Parkinsons disease
Huntingtons chorea
Sydenhams chorea
schizophrenia
Thalamus
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İt is important in the regulation of the cortical and subcortical stimulations and
making adequate associatıns between them,
Regulates and directs attention towards the target objects,
İt is important in filtering the sensory stimulation of the real world and picks
up the most important ones whereas neglecting the others,
Produces motor responses in associatıon to the signals from the
surrounding,
Supports cortical and subcortical circuits for a healthy cognitive activity.
İn its pahological conditions;
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Perseverations
İrrelevant speech content
Apathy
Amnestic states
Personality disorders
Disordered executive functions
Denial
Aphasic conditions
Schizophrenia
Orbitofrontal Korteks
Hypocampus
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İt is located medially of the temporal cortex
subcortically,
İt main purpose is to regulate;
and is situated
– Memory
– İts pathology is related with psychiatric disorders
Hipokampus
Limbic lobe
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Most important part is the amygdala besides hiypocampus
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İt regulates the behaviors in the following aspects;
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Learning and memory
Food seeking
Desires for Sexual intercourse
Ability to find the child in animals
To feel the danger in the environment
To make defense towards an unwanted condition
To make a plan for an attack towards an unwanted target
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İn its pathological states
İrregular fers, stres conditions,anxiety feelings(PTSD,phobic ,panicdisorder
Epilepy
Memory disorders like Deja –vu.
Amygdala
İnsula
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İt is important in sensory and motor associations
İmportant in pain perception
İts pathology makes speech disorders
Can not show emotions towards others
Memory loss is important
Faces with disgust., sadness and fear in the persons can only be
perceived in intact insula
Conditioned reflexes toward fears is reguleted by it
Phobic anxiety symptoms,
To understand the meanings of mimics which do not give any
pleasure
To understand hunger
To categorize all the above symptoms according to their sev erity
Gyrus Cingulus
Gyrus Cinguli
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İt evaluates the sensory and affective values of the stimuli from the
surrounding, whether it gives pleasure or discomfort to the person,
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İmportent in the regulation of;
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Fear
Euphoric states
Depression
Sexuality
Agression
Septum
Serebellum
• İt controls and regulates the motor activity of the muscles
• İt is related in equilibrium of the body in various places
• Equilibrium disturbances are;
– Loss in synergic movements is called ataxic movement
– Tremor and hipotonic states are due to its pathology
– Nistagmus is remated to it and means horizontal or vertical involuntary
eye movements
– Motor speech disturbances are frequent
– Abnormal pusture in a person is related to serebeller pathology.
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Regulates conditioning
İmportant in time perception
Learning is under its control
Cognitive affection is under its regulatory control
Also thinking is disturbed which we call dismetric thinking,
Brain stem
• Cranial nerves originate from this area.So its pathology results in
cranial nerve palsies
• Vital regulatory centers are also located here.İmportant ones are;
– Respiratory center
– Cardiac regulatory center ( pulse rate )
– Blood pessure center
– Center related to eye movements
– Centers related to gastric and cardiac movement
• Ascendan motor and sensorial nerves pass through this area,so
pathology which is present here disturbs the passage of the motor and
sensorial nerve signals to the above brain areas
• Arrousal center which we call formatio reticularis is very close to this
area
Nervous system
• Neuron is made up from
a-soma
b-dendrites
c-axon
d-terminal button
Synapse
Neurotransmitter (Ach Col,NE,Dopa,Ser,GABA,GL
Neuropeptide
Substance P
Parts of a neuron
1.
Soma
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The nucleus of the neuron is in the soma
Signals come from the dendrites and the nucleus makes a decision what to
do.
The signals that are produced here goes to the periphery through the Axons
İt is related with the regulatory functions
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Axon
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They differ according to their lenghts From nm to met,
Massages are transfered through the axon from soma to terminal button
Axons end with the terminal buttons where neurotransmitters are
synthesized.
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Dendrites
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Bring massages to the nerve cell from the surrounding
Makes numerous connections like a telephone network
They have the receptors which are specific to the neurotransmitters
Parts of a neuron
4-
Terminal button
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They resemble the end part of the axon and have some vesicles in which
neurotransmitters are deposited
They are the end part of the neuron.
5-
Ranvier nodes
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They are at the end of the myelin coated nodes on the axon.
Signals transfer on them by one node to another node in which the
velocity of signal transduction is increased
This myelin and Ranvier Nodes increase the signal velocity
İf there is no myelin coat ( unmyelinated fibres) velocity is slow)
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Synaptic cleft
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İt is a cleft in whicn neurotransmission takes place chemically
One side secretes the neurotransmitter other side takes the response
through receptors
They are not in physical contact with both side
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Parts of a neuron
7-Receptor
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They are the aünotomic structures on the other side of the
synapse which arespecific for the neurotransmitters
They are stimulated by the chemicals and chemicals must be over
threshold,
When the receptor is stimulated ,the stimulus begins to travel in
the exciter neuron and this neuron is called Second Neuron.
İn case of inhibitions stimuli do not progress in the second
neuron,stimulus just ends at the point of synapse where inhibition
is stimulated.
Synaptic cleft can be 1/20.000.000.000 m,
Stimulus transfer this distance to the receptor in miliseconds.
Stimulus travel through the long nerve axons at the same
period.So if the amount of synapse on the road increase ,the
period for stimulus transfer increase too much.
Neurotransmitters
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Excitatory neurotransmitters;
Acethylcholine
Norepinephrine
Dopamine
Seratonin
Glutamic acid
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İnhibitory neurotnansmitters
Gama amino butyric acid - G A B A,
Glycine ( inhibitor in the medulla spinalis)
Neuropeptides
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2-
Opioid peptides
Encephalines (leu encephaline-met encephalines)
Beta endorphines
Dynorphines
Substance –P
Opioid peptides block their receptors
3-
Acupuncture
4-
Placebo effects
Neural impulse
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When the neuron is at rest its potential is called the resting potential.İnside
and outside difference is 70mv.
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At this point intracellual Na ions move quickly to the extracellular
compartment.Pozitive charges increase outside the cell (Resting potential).
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İntracelluar compartment becomes more negatively charged .Difference is
the resting potential.
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When the nueuron is excited with neurotransmitters,Na ions quickly begin to
move inward to the intracellular compartment, so extracelluar compartment
loses positive charges and becomes negatively charged as compared to
intracellular compartment. (Depolarization)
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K ions begin to move outward to extracelluar compartment. This period is
Repolarization.
Action potential
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Action potential has three phase resting-depolarization and repolarization
periods
This period is about a millisecond in duration.
Refractory period is the period in which the nerve cell can not be stimulated
with the consecutive stimuli. At that point the nerve cell is already polarized
buk not repolarized yet. Without polarization, depolarization is not possible.
Theshold: it is the amount of minimal energy that is required for the cell to
be stimulated. Below threshold stimuli is not effective. Overthreshold stimuli
stimulates the neurons.
When over threshold stimuli makes stimulation, the nerve is stimulated in
the same way as it is stimulated with a high threshold stimuli. Once
stimulated stimulation progresses even it is weak or high (All or None Law).
When we stimulate our skin with a cotton we feel a sensation, but when we
stimulate the skin with a hammer we fell more than a stimulation like pain,
because with hammer more than one nerve cell is stimulated.
Organization of the nervous system
Organization of the
nervous system.
Nervous System
Peripheric nervous system
Central Nervous System
Brain
Forebrain
Medulla spinalis
midbrain
a-serebral
korteks
b-limbic lobe
c-bazal ganglia
d-Thalamus
e-hypothalamus
hindbrain
Servical8,
Thoracal 12
Lomber 5
Sacral5
Cocygeal 1
a-serebellum
a-colliculus
İnferior,
b-colliculus
Superior,
b-Pons
c-medulla
oblongata
Somatic nervous
system
Autonomic
Nervous
system
a-Sympathetic
nervous system
b-parasympathetic
Nervous system
Major parts of the brain
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Talamus: Projection center of all sensory fibres directs stimuli and keeps them
alive in the brain Anterior,midline,lateral and posterior nucleus have different
functions.
Hypothalamus:related to the endorcrine functions of the brain and it is formed
by mamillary corpuscles,tuber cinerium,infundibulum,optic chiasm.
Limbic lobe: İt is related to affections,fear ,anger and smell taste. İt regulates
the emotional living.
Hypocampus: İt is a memory deposit,alsa vigilanceanxiety and stress
regulations are made from this center.
Amygdala=Related to emotional interactions Placidity,rage impulsion,etc.
Gyrus cinguli: regulates sexual relations and motivates getting pleasure
Septum:regulates emotions and conditioned reflexes and conditioned fear
behaviors
Bulbus olfactorius=related to smell taste
Bazal ganglia= related to involuntary movements regulation.
Serebral cortex : frontal,temporal,parietal and occipital lobes
Central fissuri( Rolando),lateral fissure ( Sylvius) and parieto occipital fissure
Nervous system
• A – C.N.S
• Brain ( forebrain,mid,hind brain)
• Medulla spinalis , 31 seg.
• B-Peripheric nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Autonomous nervous system
Sympathetic-Parasympathetic n.s.
Stimulates with
• Parasympathetic N S
Preganglioner stimulant = Acethylcholine
Postsempathetic stimulant= Acethycholine
• Sympathetic N S
Preganglionic = acethylcholine
postsempathetic= norepinephrine
Blockers
• Parasympathetic blockers
– Muscarinic receptors = Atropine
– Nicotinic receptors = = Nicotine
• Sympathetic blockers
-alfa receptors are blocked isoprotorenol,
-beta receptors are blocked by propranolol.
Reflex arc
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Stimulus
Afferent fibres - posterior root -sensory,
Center
- medulla spinalis,
Efferent fibres - anterior root - motor,
End organ Mostly muscle or a salivary
gland.
Reaction
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Reaction is different from a simple reflex mostly cortical thinking is present
in a reaction.
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Red light is seen
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İt means to stop the car
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Brain has prior knowledge about the red light and makes decision
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End organ muscle contracts car stops.
İmportant parts of the brain
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Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Limbic lobe amygdala and hippocampus
septal nuclei, gyrus cinguli
bulbus olfoctorius
• Bazal ganglia nuc.striatum, nuc. caudatus
Motor areas
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Primary motor area
area 4
Premotor area
area 6
Prim. sensorial projection area 3/1/2 area
Primary vizual area
area 17
Primary auditory area
area 41
Primary smell area
uncus
Primary areas of the brain.
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Primary motor area ( Area 4): İnfront of the sulcus centralis. ContainsBetz
piramidal cells.Regulates the movements of the contrlaterale voluntary
movements of the scelatal muscles. Regulates head and eye movements.
Stimulation can cause Jacksonian type epeleptic fits.
Premotor area (Area 6) :Regulates the involuntary movements. İn
pathological states some extrapyramidal symptoms are seen like parkınson,
dystonia etc
Primary sensorial projection cortex (Area 3-1-2) : Regulates the feelings and
sensations from the contrlateral muscles ,joints,skin and tendons. Cortical
taste area is in the Sylvius fissure.
Primary visual area ( Area 17): İt is in the occipital lobe. Regulates vision.
Primary hearing area ( Area 41) : Area is stimulated by the fibres from
cochlea. All fibres from cochlea stimulates specific points , so one can
differentiate the tone of a noise.
Smell area : İt is in the temporal lobe ( Uncus ).
Association areas:Regulates high cortical functions like cognitions and
conditioned reflexes.