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AP PSYCH REVIEW THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR 2013-2014 (8 – 10 %) Overview o The basis for the biological approach is the neuroscience or biopsychological perspective The activity of the brain and its neurotransmitters helps to explain our behavior Neuroanatomy o the study of the parts and function of neurons o neurons individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system Parts of the Neuron o Dendrites rootlike parts of the neuron that arise from the cell body; grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons o Cell body (soma) contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell to sustain life o Axon Wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body o Myelin sheath a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses o Terminal buttons (end buttons, terminal branches, synaptic knobs) the end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters o Neurotransmitters chemicals contained inside the terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate; neurotransmitters fit in receptors sites on the dendrites much like a key fits into a lock o Synapse the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next 1 Neural Firing o In its resting state, the neuron has a slightly negative charge o Terminal buttons from neuron A are stimulated and release neurotransmitters into the synapse, which fit into receptors sites in neuron B o If enough neurotransmitters are received then the threshold is met The cell membrane of neuron B becomes permeable, letting positive ions rush inside the cell The inside now becomes positive; this change in polarity spreads down the length of the axon in neuron B, like a bullet from a gun the action potential (the electric message firing) Travels 120 meters per second o When the charge reaches the terminal buttons of neuron B the buttons release neurotransmitters into the synapse o The all or nothing principle states that a neuron will fire COMPLETELY The threshold for firing must be met Neurotransmitters o Excitatory they excite the next cell into firing o Inhibitory they inhibit the next cell from firing o The type of neurotransmitter received will determine whether the neuron fires or doesn’t Major Types of Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter Function Problems Associated with Excess or Deficit Acetylcholine (AcH) Motor Movement Lack of AcH = Alzheimer’s Dopamine Motor movement & Lack = Parkinson’s ; too alertness much = Schizophrenia Endorphins Pain control Involved in addiction Serotonin Mood control Lack = clinical depression GABA Important inhibitory Seizures and sleep neurotransmitter problems Glutamate Excitatory Migraines and seizures neurotransmitter and is involved in memory Norepinephrine Alertness/Arousal depression The Nervous System o Afferent neurons take information from the senses to the brain o Interneurons once information reaches the brain or spinal cord, interneurons take the messages and send them to other parts of the brain or to efferent neurons o Efferent neurons (motor neurons) take information from the brain to the rest of the body The “e” in efferent is easily remembered as exiting the brain 2 The Organization of the Nervous System The Nervous System o Central Nervous System (CNS) contains the brain and spinal cord Spinal cord bundle of nerves that runs through the center of the spine o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) all the other nerves in our body NOT encased by bone Divided into the somatic and autonomic Somatic controls our VOLUNTARY muscle movements o The motor cortex in the brains sends impulses to the SNS allowing us to move Autonomic controls the automatic functions of our body and deals with stress reactions o Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic Sympathetic mobilizes our body to respond to stress; accelerates heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, but conserves energy for quick response Parasympathetic slows down our body after a stress response 3 Slows down autonomic system responses Peripheral Nervous System Transmission You awake in the middle of the night to go to the restroom On the way back you stub toe against the corner of your bed Sensory neurons in your toe are activated and afferent neurons are sending this message up your spinal cord The message reaches your brain and efferent neurons in your motor cortex cause you to hop up and down Reflexes You are rummaging through your drawer when a thumbtack pricks you in the finger You immediately jerk your hand back and see the damage you’ve inflicted on yourself This message DID NOT reach the brain Reflexes stop at the spinal cord Are adaptive as they ensure our survival Studying the Brain o Accidents 1848 The Case of Phineas Gage Gage had a railroad spike thrust through his brain His doctors took notes documenting the brain damage and how Gage’s behavior changed Gage became highly emotional and impulsive after the accident They concluded the front part of the brain deals with emotions and decision-making o Lesioning The deliberate destruction or removal of one part of the brain Done solely for experimental purposes In other cases, it is inevitable A patient has a brain tumor that cannot be removed with removing parts of the surrounding brain Doctors will monitor the patients subsequent behaviors for any changes Frontal lobotomy a historical example of lesioning The purposely destruction of front part of the frontal lobe Formerly done as a method of last resort Now replaced by drug treatments o Electroencephalogram (EEG) To detect brain waves Researchers can use this to determine which waves are present as we cycle through the different stages of consciousness Useful in sleep studies 4 o Computerized Axial Tomogrpahy (CAT or CT) A sophisticated x-ray CT scans use several x-ray cameras rotating around the brain to produce a detailed 3-D image of the structure of the brain Used to find any brain abnormalities o Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Similar to the CT scans, but the MRI uses magnetic fields and provides a more detailed image Measures the density and location of brain material o Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Allows researchers to see what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks Measures how much glucose parts of the brain are using o Functional MRI (fMRI) Combines the elements of PET scans and MRIs Shows detail of brain structure along with direction of blood flow in the brain Shows brain function Ex: how we know autistics process faces and objects in the same part of the brain Brain Structure and Function o Hindbrain located at the top of the spinal cord and contains the: Medulla blood pressure, heart rate, breathing AKA the medulla oblongata Pons located above the medulla and connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and the forebrain Involved in facial expression Remember, the pons yawns Cerebellum located on the bottom rear of the brain Literally means little brain Coordinates some habitual muscle movements, such as tracking objects in space and playing a musical instrument o Midbrain Coordinates simple movements with sensory information Located above the hindbrain, but below the forebrain Ex: allows you to read this page as you turn your head to follow the text In this case, it is integrating your sensory experiences (seeing) with muscle movements (tilting your head) o Forebrain Where the magic of thought and reason occur It is what makes humans, human Composed of the: Thalamus 5 o sits on top of the brain stem and is responsible for receiving the sensory signals from the spinal cord and sending them to the appropriate areas of the forebrain Hypothalamus o right next to the thalamus and controls metabolic functions such as body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system o Also might be involved in controlling our circadian rhythms Amygdala o Vital to our experiences of emotion o Add emotion to memory and its proximity to the hippocampus validates this claim Remember, don’t make Amy angry Hippocampus o Vital to our system of memory o Memories are processed through this area and then sent to other areas of the cortex o Damage to this area leads to difficulty in retaining new information Remember if you saw a HIPPO on CAMPUS you wouldn’t forget Cerebral Cortex o The gray wrinkled area that covers the surface of the brain o Contains densely packed neurons o The wrinkles are know as fissures, which increase the surface area of the brain More wrinkles = more surface area Hemispheres o The cerebral cortex is divided into left and right hemispheres Left hemisphere gets sensory input from and controls the right side of the body Right hemisphere gets sensory input and controls the left side of the body This is known as contralateral control o The left hemisphere seems to be more active in Language, logic, and sequential tasks o The right hemisphere seems to be more active in Spatial and creative tasks o The left/right brain theory is known as brain lateralization or hemispheric specialization o These differences can be accounted for in split-brain patients The corpus callosum (connects left and right hemispheres) is severed to reduce the severity of seizures 6 This procedure was pioneered by Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzinga They reported split-brain patients Cannot orally report information only presented to the right hemisphere (left side of body) Areas of the Cerebral Cortex o Any area of the cerebral cortex NOT associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements is an ASSOCIATION AREA Frontal Lobes o Large areas of the cerebral cortex located at the top front part of the brain behind the eyes o The anterior or front of the frontal lobe is the prefrontal cortex Plays a critical role in directing our thought processes Is the brain’s central executive and is believed to be important in foreseeing consequences, pursuing goals, and maintaining emotional control o Frontal lobe in the left hemisphere contains Broca’s area responsible for controlling the muscles involved in speech damage leave the person unable to make the muscle movements necessary to generate speech o The Motor Cortex a thin vertical strip at the back of the frontal lobe sends signals to our muscles, controlling voluntary muscle movements the top of the body is controlled by neurons at the bottom of this cortex and vice-versa Parietal Lobes o Located behind the frontal lobes o Contain the somatosensory cortex (sensory cortex) Receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body The top of the sensory cortex receives information from the bottom of our body and vice-versa Occipital Lobes o The very back of the brain, farthest from our eyes o Purpose is to process messages from our eyes o Impulses from the retinas in our eyes are sent to the visual cortex to be interpreted Temporal Lobes o Process sounds sensed by our ears o Sounds waves are processed by the ears turned into neural impulses interpreted by our auditory cortices o Auditory cortices are not lateralized left ear to left temporal lobe, and vice-versa o Wernicke’s area is in the left temporal lobe 7 Interprets both written and spoken speech Damage = the inability to understand language Speech would sound fluid, but lack appropriate syntax and grammatical structure needed for meaningful communication Brain Plasticity o The adaptation of certain parts of the brain to take over for damaged parts of the brain o Younger brains are more plastic than older ones, thus more likely to compensate for damage 8 The Endocrine System o A system of glands that secretes hormones that affect different biological processes in our body o Regulated by the hypothalamus, which in turn regulates the pituitary gland (master gland) Adrenal Glands o Produce adrenaline which signals the rest of the body to prepare for fight or flight Ovaries and Testes o Produce our sex hormones o Ovaries = estrogen o Testes = testosterone 9 Genetics o Every human cell contains 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs o DNA makes up chromosomes o Genes = specific segments on the strand of DNA o Recessive genes only express themselves if two are inherited o Dominant genes are expressed if there is a combination 10 Twins o MZ twins share 100% of their DNA in common o Thomas Bouchard Found more than 100 identical twins given up for adoption and raised in different families Findings IQ .69 correlation for identical twins raised apart and .88 correlation for identical twins raised together Confound effective psychological environment o MZ twins raised together seem to be treated the same as they are identical Chromosomal Abnormalities o Men are XY o Females are XX o Turner’s syndrome Born with a single X in the 23rd pair Shortness, webbed necks, and differences in physical sexual development o Klinefelter’s syndrome Have an extra X, resulting in XXY Leads to minimal sexual development and personality traits such as introversion o Down’s Syndrome Born with an extra X in the 21st pair Rounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes, some degree of mental retardation 11