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The Biological Basis for Behavior The Human Brain I. Neurons • A. Three types of Neurons – 1. Sensory = neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS also known as AFFERENT NEURONS. Sensory Neuron Sensory Neuron Brain Spinal Cord Motor Neuron • 2. Motor = the neurons that carry outgoing messages from the CNS to the muscles and glands. Also known as EFFERENT NEURONS. • 3. Interneurons = CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs • B. The structure of the Neuron – 1. Dendrites = the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses forward toward the cell body. – 2. Axon = the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands 3. The Soma = the Cell body – its function is to support the cell. At the center is the nucleus 4. The myelin sheath = a layer of fatty segmented tissue that encases the fibers of many neurons a. Enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next a. The Nodes of Ranvier = the nodes along the myelin sheath Diagram of a Neuron – 5. The Synapse = the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron – also called the synaptic gap or cleft – 6. Neurotransmitters = chemical messengers that transverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. They create or inhibit the receiving neuron form generating a neural impulse The Synapse https://www.youtube.com/wat ch?v=m51VFW1m4BQ II. The Nervous System • A. The Central Nervous System – 1. Also known as the CNS – 2. It consist of the brain and the spinal cord – 3. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) is a liquid similar to blood serum found in the ventricles of the brain and in the central canal of the spinal cord • B. The Peripheral Nervous System PNS – 1. The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body – 2. It sends sensory input to the brain and relays commands from the brain to muscles – 3. Nerves = neural cables containing many axons which connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs – 4. The PNS consists of • a. The Somatic System = the division of the PNS that controls the body’s skeletal muscles; AKA the skeletal nervous system • b. Autonomic System = the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs such as the heart. – Parasympathetic Nervous System = the division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy – Sympathetic Nervous System = the division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations The Nervous System III. The Brain • A. Tools of Discovery – 1. Lesions and Accidents= • a. Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue • b. Used to determine the impact on the brain functioning • B. The Central Core – 1. The brain stem • a. the oldest part and central core of the brain • b. Begins where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull • c. The brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions • d. The hindbrain is the most posterior part of the brain it includes the medulla, Pons and cerebellum – 2. Medulla oblongata • a. Medulla = the base of the brainstem; • b. Controls heartbeat and breathing • c. It lies directly on top of the spinal cord – 3. Pons • lies directly above the Medulla • acts as a bridge between the Medulla and the rest of the brain, as well as between the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum – 4. . Reticular formation = a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal – 5. The Midbrain – located between the hindbrain and forebrain, it controls and coordinates some basic sensory and muscle movements. – 6. The Thalamus • a. The thalamus = the brain’s sensory switchboard • b. Located on top of the brainstem; located in both hemispheres resembling twin avocados • c. It directs messages to the sensory receiving areas of the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla – 7. Cerebellum • a. The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brain stem, to the side of the pons and medulla • b. It helps to coordinate voluntary movement and balance • D. The Limbic System – 1. Sometimes referred to as the forebrain – 2. The limbic system = • a. a doughnut shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and the cerebra hemispheres • b. Associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex • c. Includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus – 2. The amygdale = Two almond shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion – 3. The Hippocampus = • a. From the Latin word meaning seahorse • b. Lies between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex • .c Is linked with forming new memories – 4. The Hypothalamus • a. A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus. • b. It directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking and body temp), it helps govern to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and it is linked to emotion https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6eD6zKpPwVM IV. The Cerebral Cortex • A. General Description – 1. The convoluted portion of our brain where thinking, memories and our personality are located. – 2. Physical description • a. Convolutions increase the surface area of the brain • b. Gyri = rolls that form the folding out portion of the cerebral cortex VII. The Cerebral Cortex • c. Sulci = valleys that form from the folding in portions of the cerebral cortex. • d. Seperated by fissures are deeper than valleys • B. The four lobes – 1. Frontal lobes • a. The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; • b. Involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments, thinking and creativity • c. prefrontal cortex receives sensory information from all senses – 2. Occipital lobes – The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; – Includes the visual areas, (V1 & V2) which receive visual information from the opposite visual field and turn it into a picture – cortical blindness is a specific type of blindness due to brain damage – 3. Parietal lobes • a. The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; • b. Includes the sensory cortex: touch, pain, temperature • c. specializes in processing body information such as touch and body location (memory and location) – 4. Temporal lobes • a. The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; • b. Includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear. (hearing and memory) • c. One of the key areas of speech known as Wernicke’s Area is located in this lobe (written and spoken language) • C. The motor cortex = an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement • D. The sensory cortex = the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations Motor and Sensory Areas • E. Association areas = areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions. They are involved in higher mental functions such as learning remembering, thinking and speaking. V. Sleep and Dreams • A. Biological Rhythms – 1. Biological Rhythms = patterns associated with our biological clock. These patterns can span days, hours or even minutes. – 2. Circadian Rhythms = Biological cycles that occur about every 24 hours. For example or sleep, blood pressure, body temperature and urine production • B. How is our sleep cycle controlled – 1. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)lies in the hypothalamus and is the body’s main biological clock. – 2. When light hits the retina it sends a signal to the SCN which then relays a message to the pineal glands which in turn secrete melatonin which is a hormone that plays a key role in regulating sleep