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Neuroanatomy Chapter Two A. Neurons 1. The long, thin cells of nerve tissue along which messages travel to & from the brain – About 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in the human brain 2. Transmission occurs whenever cells are stimulated past a minimum point and emit a signal. – Either fires or does not fire – Electrical impulses allow for transmission of info within a neuron; chemical impulses allow for transmission of info between neurons B. Parts of a Neuron 1. Neurons have many of the same features as other cells – Nucleus – Cytoplasm – Cell membrane 2. What makes neurons unique is their shape and function Parts of a Neuron (cont.) 1. Cell Body (also called the soma) – Contains the nucleus and produces the energy needed to fuel neuron activity – Directs all cell activities including the nucleus 2. Axon – Carries impulses away from the cell body toward surrounding neurons 3. Dendrite – Receive impulses, or messages, from other neurons and send them to the cell body Parts of a Neuron (cont.) 4. Myelin sheath- insulates and protects the axon for some neurons – speeds the transmission of impulses – In cases of multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath is gone. 5. Axon terminals- release neurotransmitters to stimulate dendrites of the next neurons 6. Neurotransmitters- chemicals contained in the terminals that enable neurons to communicate 7. Synapse- Space between the terminals of one neuron & the dendrites of the next neuron Structures of a neuron LO 2.3 Neuron communication Menu C. How a Neuron “Fires” 1. Ions – charged particles. – Inside neuron – negatively charged. – Outside neuron – positively charged. 2. Resting potential - the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse. 3. Action potential - the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon. – Allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell. 4. All-or-none - referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all. 5. Return to resting potential. D. Neurotransmitters 1. Types of neurotransmitters: – Excitatory: causes a neuron to fire – Inhibitory: stops a neuron from firing 2. In NS: called neurotransmitters 3. Outside of NS: called hormones 4. Often several NTs working at the same terminal button E. Neuron Activity 1. The intensity depends on whether the neurons are ON or OFF 2. Types: – Afferent • Sensory neurons • Relay messages from the sense organs to spinal cord & brain – Efferent • Motor neurons • Send signals from the brain to the glands and muscles – Interneurons • Carry information between other neurons only found in the brain and spinal cord I. The Nervous System Chapter Two The Big Picture: The Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System The Brain The Spinal Cord Autonomic NS Sympathetic NS Skeletal (Somatic) NS Parasympathetic NS A. Nervous System 1. The Central Nervous System (CNS) – The brain and the spinal cord. 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – The smaller branches of nerves that stretch throughout the body. Spinal Cord Sensory organs receive the message. Sensory neurons connect in the back of the spinal cord and send the information to the spinal cord. Interneurons take the information and send it to the brain & to motor neurons at the same time. Motor neurons exit through the front of the spinal cord and carry the message back to the muscle. B. Voluntary and Involuntary Activities 1. Somatic Nervous System – The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles. • Example: raising your hand to turn a book page. 2. Autonomic Nervous System – The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls internal biological functions. • Example: your heartbeat or blood pressure. C. ANS 1. Two parts: • Sympathetic Prepares the body for dealing with emergencies or strenuous activity. • Parasympathetic Works to conserve energy and to enhance the body’s ability to recover from strenuous activity. II. Parts of the Brain Chapter Two Exploring Psychology • Early Greeks were not impressed with the brain. They suggested that the brain’s main function was to cool the blood. They were much more impressed by the heart. They proposed that the heart was the source of feelings and thoughts. Hippocrates, however, observed the effect of head injuries on people’s thoughts and actions and noted, “[F]rom the brain, and from the brain only, arise our pleasures, joys, laughter and jests, as well as our sorrows, pains, griefs and tears. Through it, in particular, we think, see, hear…Eyes, ears, tongue, hands and feet act in accordance with the discernment [judgment] of the brain.” Adapted from Psychology by Peter Gray, 1999. The Question… • How did Hippocrates help change the notion that the brain, not the heart, was the source of thoughts and feelings? A. The Hindbrain 1. Location- Rear base of the skull 2. Role- Involved in most basic processes of life – Includes: • Cerebellum- helps control posture, balance, and voluntary movements • Medulla- controls breathing, heart rate, and a variety of reflexes • Pons- functions as a bridge between the spinal cord and the brain; produces chemicals the body needs for sleep B. The Midbrain 1. Location- Small part of the brain above the pons 2. Role- Collects information from the senses and sends it upward – Includes the medulla, pons, and midbrain (all make up the brain stem) – Reticular Activating System (RAS) spans across these structures • Alerts the rest of the brain to incoming signals and is involved in the sleep/wake cycle C. The Forebrain 1. Location- Covers the brain’s central core – Includes: • Thalamus- Relay station for information traveling to and from the cortex (all sensory info except smell) • Hypothalamus- Controls hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior – Makes us sweat when we are hot and shiver when we are cold. 2. High thinking processes are also housed in the forebrain – Cerebral cortex- outer layer of the forebrain • Gives you the ability to learn and remember – Cerebrum- inside layer of the forebrain (Both go around the hindbrain and brain stem like a mushroom surrounds its stem) D. The Limbic System 1. Location- Found in the core of the forebrain (sits atop the brainstem but surrounded by cerebral cortex) 2. Role- Composed of different structures in that regulate emotions and motivations – Includes the hypothalamus; amygdala (controls violent emotions); thalamus; and hippocampus (important in the formation of memories) E. Cerebrum 1. Consists of two hemispheres, or halves 2. Resembles a small brain 2. The hemisphere is connected by a band of fibers called the corpus callosum 3. Each hemisphere has deep grooves that mark regions known as lobes – Both hemispheres have the same four lobes F. The Lobes 1. Cerebral cortex– gray wrinkled surface; divided into 4 main lobes Occipital Lobe • – – • Controls vision Damage could cause visual problems Parietal Lobe – • Concerned with information from the senses all over the body Temporal Lobe – • Concerned with hearing, memory, emotion, and speaking Frontal Lobe – Organization, planning, and creative thinking. 2. Some other sources say that frontal lobe controls behavior, thought & emotion (instead of temporal lobe) G. Other Parts of Cerebral Cortex 1. Prefrontal cortex: most frontal region of frontal lobe (emotional control, planning) 2. Motor cortex: Strip of frontal lobe specialized for controlling voluntary actions of muscles 3. Somatosensory cortex: Strip of parietal lobe specialized for processing sensations of touch 4. Broca’s area: Portion of motor cortex found only in the left hemisphere & specialized in coordinating muscles used in speech 5. Wernicke’s area: Portion of temporal lobe found only in the left hemisphere & involved in processing & understanding speech Overview of the Brain Parts & Function Sensory Homonculus a map showing how different cortical segments control parts of the body The amount of cortex devoted to sensory, motor, and association areas differs with more complex species. Rats & cats rely on their instincts more for survival. Humans & chimpanzees rely on integrating signals for survival. III. Right/Left Brain A. Hemisphere Lateralization 1. Each hemisphere controls & receives info from the opposite side of body 2. Each hemisphere of the brain is specialized to promote efficient work •Left hemisphere– involved in tasks that require logic, order, critical thinking or analysis (writing, science, & math) •Right hemisphere- require artistic or creative skills (visual spatial skills); helps with recognition of faces B. Split-Brain Research 1. Patients with severe epilepsy had their corpus callosum split to control seizures 2. They appear to be normal (cognitive, motor, intellectual skills remain intact) – Personality & mood are unaffected by surgery 3. Some unusual effects occur after surgery – Patients cannot orally report info only presented to the right hemisphere (since language centers are in the left) Language Areas of the Left Hemisphere C. Important Figures Associated with the Brain 1. Paul Broca- discovered that the speech production center of the brain is located in the frontal lobe 2. Carl Wernicke- studied the effects of brain disease on speech & language – All language deficits are result of damage to Broca’s area 3. Roger Sperry- worked on split-brain research 4. Michael Gazzaniga- made advances in understanding lateralization in the brain IV. How Psychologists Study the Brain On September 13, 1848 Gage was a 25 year old foreman of a blasting crew preparing a railroad bed outside Cavendish, Vermont. He used his 3 foot 7 inches, 13 1/4 pound iron rod to tamp gunpowder and sand into a hole in the rock. On this day something went horribly wrong. The rod striking the stone caused a spark and the resulting explosion sent the rod flying up and through his left cheek and out the top of his head. To the amazement of everyone he was not killed and lived for more than eleven years. His limbic system was separated from his frontal lobe during this accident. He lost control of his emotions & became impulsive & animalistic. A. Ways of Studying Brain 1. Accidents- How does one behave after suffering a brain injury (Ex. Phineas Gage) 2. Recording- Electrodes inserted into brain to record neurons 3. Lesioning- removal or destruction of part of brain – Two types: » » Brain destruction to determine the “after” behavior as compared to the “before” behavior Most popular- frontal lobotomy 4. Stimulation – Electrodes used to “stimulate” brain to pinpoint problems areas in order to repair • Example: epilepsy and pain relieve B. EEG 1. Stands for electroencephalograph 2. Created in 1929 by Hans Berger 3. Records brain’s electrical activity/firing of neurons 4. Multiple electrodes are pasted to outside of head 5. Adv- Detects rapid changes in electrical activity 6. Dis- Can not pinpoint exact source of activity 7. Can be done while the person is awake or even sleeping EEG C. CAT/CT Scan 1. Stands for computerized tomography 2. Uses several X-ray cameras that rotate around the brain & combine all the pictures into a 3-D picture of the brain’s structure 3. Most commonly used when identifying tumors, tissue degeneration & skull fractures 4. Adv- Provide greater clarity & reveal more details than regular x-ray exams 5. Dis- Chance of getting radiation; not for pregnant women CAT D. PET Scan 1. Stands for positron emission tomography 2. Lets researchers see what areas of brain are most active during certain tasks – Can do while brain is at rest, sleeping, etc. 3. Involves injection of radioactive dye into bloodstream that can be traced & detected to monitor blow flow to various regions of brain 4. Useful for investigating abnormal brain activity (seizures, following strokes, etc.) PET E. MRI 1. Stands for magnetic resonance imaging 2. Use magnetic fields to measure the density & location of brain material 3. Computer then converts the signals into highly detailed images of tissue & structures in the brain (no function) 4. Adv- No exposure to radiation; brain, spinal cord & nerves can be seen clear than x-rays 5. Dis– Some patients can’t have them; no metal allowed in room MRI F. fMRI 1. Stands for Functional MRI 2. Combines elements of MRI & PET scans 3. Shows details of brain structure with info about blood flow in brain, tying brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks 4. Adv- No exposure to radiation 5. Dis- Maps produced are not created in real time V. Endocrine System A. Definition 1. Collection of glands which secrete hormones into bloodstream that target & have effects on specific organs in body 2. Allows for communication between the brain & specific organs in the body (in conjunction with ANS) 3. Under control of hypothalamus B. Hormones vs. Neurotransmitters 1. Distance traveled between release & target sites – hormones travel longer distances – neurotransmitters - travel across a synaptic cleft 2. Speed of communication – hormones - slower communication – neurotransmitters - rapid, specific action C. Parts of the Endocrine System 1. Pineal gland – Secretes melatonin which regulates sleep-wake cycle 2. Pituitary gland – Referred to as “master gland” because it regulates many other glands 3. Ovaries & testes – Produce our sex hormones – Estrogen for women; testosterone for men 4. Adrenal glands– produce adrenaline – Signals rest of the body to prepare for fight or flight VII. Genetics A. Definition 1. Affects human thought & behavior 2. Traits result from: • Nature – The characteristics one inherits – Ones biological makeup • Nurture – Environmental Factors – Family, culture, education, individual experiences B. Basic Principles of Genetics 1. Chromosomes – Strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic information 2. The numbers: – 46 chromosomes in each human body. – Operate in 23 pairs (with one chromosome of each pair contributed by each parent). – Organic molecule arranged in a doublehelix. – Contains the “code of life” C. Human Behavior Genetics 1. Family studies – Assume that close family members share more of a trait than non-relatives – Used to assess heritability of psychological disorders or traits 2. Twin studies – Used to determine how heritable a trait or disorder may be – Identical twins would have highest heritability