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Biological Psychology Biological Roots of Behavior How the Brain Governs Behavior Neurotransmitters “So why do we have to study biology in a psych class?” • Let me use Phineas Gage to help answer this question… “He was no longer Gage…” • Several different angles of where the rod passed through his skull There is a Phineas Gage display in the Warren Medical Museum at Harvard University • This is what went through his brain (see below)… Biological Roots of Behavior • Franz Gall (1758-1828) – Austrian physicist who invented phrenology • He felt that bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and character traits. • Introduced as being scientific but its use was exploited by quacks on gullible individuals Biological Roots of Behavior • Became similar to that of astrology, palm-reading and tarot • Although, ill-fated theory was laughed at by scientific community of that day – it may have had some validity • Localization of brain functions somehow hit the mark The Nervous System • Electrochemical communication system that enables us to think, feel, and behave. • Complex beyond comprehension • Although, human brains are more complex our nervous systems and those of animals operate in a similar fashion – advantage of this is experimentation The Nervous System • Allows researchers to study simple animals such as squids and sea slugs to help us better understand the organization of our own brains Divisions of the Nervous System • Consists of two systems – Central Nervous System • Brain and spinal cord – Peripheral Nervous System • Which connects the CNS to the rest of the body Organization of the Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System • Two components: – Somatic Nervous System • Transmits sensory input to the CNS from the outside world and directs motor output – Autonomic Nervous System • Controls glands and muscles of our internal organs – “automatic pilot” Autonomic Nervous System • Dual system: – Sympathetic Nervous System • Arouses the body – Parasympathetic Nervous System • Calms us down Neurons • Nerve cells (building blocks) – essentially identical to animals – Small samples of brain tissue from a person and a monkey are basically indistinguishable Endocrine System: Taking the slow lane • Unlike the speedy nervous system which zips messages from eyes to brain to hand in a fraction of a second, endocrine messages use the slow lane • May take several seconds or more as bloodstream carries a hormone from an endocrine gland to its target tissue Endocrine System • Hormones are chemical messengers • Influence all aspects of our lives – growth, metabolism, reproduction, moods, etc. • Strives for homeostasis (balance) by responding to stress, exertion, internal thoughts, etc. The Brain • Studying the brain: – Clinical observations – Manipulating the brain How does the brain govern behavior? • 3 Principle layers of the brain: (1) Brainstem (2) Limbic System • Hippocampus • Amygdala • Hypothalamus (3) Cerebral Cortex The Whole Brain Atlas What the Brain Controls The Lobes of the Brain A Positron Emission Tomography Scanner (PET) So we can understand how people get…….. Murderous mind? A PET scan reveals less activity in the prefrontal cortex of a convicted killer (right) than in that of a nonviolent control. A Pet Scan of a Depressed Patient A PET Scan of a Schizophrenic Patient Brainstem (or Hindbrain) • The brain’s innermost region… – Begins where the spinal cord enters the skull and swells slightly forming the medulla – Towards the rear of the brainstem is the cerebellum – this is linked to memory and its major function is muscular control Limbic System • Hippocampus – This structure plays a key role in allowing us to store new information – Problems here may cause Alzheimer's – these individuals have trouble processing declarative memories – Milner (1968): the classic case of H.M. Limbic System • Amygdala – Emotional control center of the brain – major influence on aggression and fear – Emotional memories as well – Alzheimer’s ??? • Kluver and Bucy (1939) • Demasio (1994) Limbic System • Hypothalamus – Major influence on hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior • Olds and Milner (1954) Cerebral Cortex • Makes us distinctively human – much higher developed than in animals – Motor Cortex – involved in the conscious initiation of voluntary movements in specific parts of the body including hand, knee, foot and head • • • • Fritsch and Hitzig (1870) Delgado (1969a) Delgado (1969b) Penfield (1975) Cerebral Cortex • Sensory Cortex – receives information from our senses – Visual cortex • visual info – Auditory cortex • auditory info – Somatosensory cortex • info from skin • Association cortex – involved in complex cognitive tasks associating words with images • Broca’s area (aphasia) • Wernicke’s area (aphasia) Neurons More Neurons And just one more!! Neurotransmitters • Neurotransmitters are chemicals made by neurons and used by them to transmit signals to the other neurons • A chemical message telling the next cell to fire or not to fire its own action potential • More than 200 in our body all with different functions • Lets briefly discuss some of the most important ones… Serotonin • Facilitates a relaxed, sleepy feeling • Tryptophan which is an amino acid found in dairy products and turkey is converted into serotonin in the body • So, insomnia sufferers may be smart to listen to grandmother’s suggestion to drink a warm glass of milk before going to bed Some Illnesses Associated With Serotonin • Too low levels in depression and anxiety sufferers • Obesity may also be associated with low levels • Linked to aggression as well -- low levels in the brains of suicide victims Dopamine • High levels lead to pleasure – Makes person feel happy and active • Dopamine raises the body's temperature and increases metabolic rate • Gives you euphoric feelings and allows you to be active • Drug and alcohol abuse will block dopamine receptors and therefore a person needs to take more to get the same effect Illnesses Associated With Dopamine • • • • Parkinson’s Disease – too low levels Schizophrenia – too high levels Tourette’s disorder – too high levels Huntington’s disease – too high levels Norepinephrine • Plays a role in attention and arousal • Used by sympathetic nervous system to prepare us for action Illnesses Associated With Norepinephrine • Depression – chronic stress depletes this neurotransmitter and can lead to depression • Note: – Aerobic Exercise is found to protect the brain from this depletion – so go out and run a mile or two if your down in the dumps Epinephrine • Involved in energy and glucose metabolism Illnesses Associated With Epinephrine • Depression – too low levels Acetylcholine • Involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and sleep • Helps parasympathetic nervous system to slow our heart rate Illnesses Associated With Acetylcholine • Alzheimer’s disease – too low levels • Note: – Unfortunately, drugs used to increase acetylcholine to help restore normal levels appear to have small effects on improving memory GABA • Inhibits excitation and anxiety • Appears directly related to anxiety reduction Illnesses Associated With GABA • Anxiety disorders – too low levels • Huntington’s Disease – too low levels – GABA systems aren’t working and this allows dopamine systems to run wild – Huntington's disease is a hereditary disorder characterized by memory loss, abnormal movement and premature death • It affects 1 in 10,000 people, and children with an affected parent have a 50 percent chance of developing the disease • Epilepsy – too low levels Glutamate • Main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain • Very important in learning and memory Illnesses Associated With Glutamate • Alzheimer’s disease – too low levels in hippocampus • Strokes – too high levels can cause neurons to die • ALS (Lou Gehrig’s Disease) – causes death in neurons in the spinal cord and brainstem Endorphins • Involved in pain reduction and pleasure • They enhance the release of dopamine • These natural opiates are released in response to pain and vigorous exercise Illnesses Associated With Endorphins • Use of artificial opiates can cause body to stop manufacturing its own – this can lead to drug addiction