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Module 3 The Brain *The Brain * * Electroencephalograph (EEG): * records “waves” of electrical activity in the brain using metal electrodes * Computerized axial tomograph (CAT): * thousands of X-ray photos of the brain are combined to form a crosssectional picture * Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): * produces three-dimensional images of the brain’s soft tissues by detecting magnetic activity from nuclear particles in brain molecules * * Positron emission tomography (PET): measures neural activity in different brain regions over several minutes by monitoring sugar glucose consumption * Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): measures neural activity in different brain regions averaged over seconds by monitoring blood oxygen levels *PET Scan *MRI Scan * * Their names come from their physical location in the human embryo. * * * Hindbrain: Located above the spinal cord, Midbrain: Located above the hindbrain Forebrain: Located above the midbrain * * *Hindbrain consists of: * Medulla: controls breathing, heart rate, swallowing, digestion, and posture * Pons: associated with sleep and arousal * Cerebellum: regulates and coordinates body movement and may play a role in learning *The Cerebellum * Reticular formation: * regulates and maintains consciousness * plays an important role in controlling arousal * Controls complex emotional reactions, cognitive processes, and movement patterns. Consists of: * Thalamus: the brain’s sensory relay station * Limbic system: influences fear, aggression, and new memories * Cerebral cortex: located on top of these structures; the most complex part of the brain * Brain’s Sensory Switchboard * Directs incoming information from the sensory systems (except smell) to the appropriate location on the cortex. * *The Brainstem and Thalamus *a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres *associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex *includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala * *The Limbic System * *neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus *directs several maintenance activities * eating * drinking * body temperature *helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland *linked to emotion * *Structure linked to the processing/formation of new explicit memories *Manufactures new neurons * *two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion, especially rage and fear *The Limbic System * Electrode implanted in reward center *Main Parts of the Human Brain * * The cerebral cortex is divided into two rounded halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. * These hemispheres are connected together at the bottom by the corpus callosum. * Both hemispheres are divided into four major sections called lobes: *The Brain *The Cerebral Cortex Cortical Localization *Occipital Lobes *include the visual areas, each of which receives visual information from the opposite visual field *Temporal Lobes *include the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear *Visual Cortex * Functional MRI scan of the visual cortex activated by light shown in the subject’s eyes *Visual and Auditory Cortex *Cortical Localization *Frontal Lobes *involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments *Parietal Lobes *include the sensory cortex *The Cerebral Cortex *The Cerebral Cortex *Motor Cortex *area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements *Sensory Cortex *area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations *Association Areas *Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions *Involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking *Cerebral Cortex *Aphasia Speech * impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding) *Broca’s Area * an area of the frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech *Wernicke’s Area * an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression * Specialization and Integration *Brain Activity when Hearing, Seeing & Speaking Words * *Right hemisphere: superior to the left hemisphere in visual and spatial tasks, recognizing nonlinguistic sounds, identifying faces, and perceiving and expressing emotions *Left hemisphere: superior to the right hemisphere at language, logic, and providing explanations for events *Women may be more likely than men to use both hemispheres for language (their brains are more bilateralized). * *65% have speech on the left (95 % RH) *Weak correlations: * + gifted & creative * - reading disabilities, epilepsy, alcoholism, schizophrenia, allergies, MR *Brain Reorganization • Corpus Callosum – large bundle of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between the hemispheres *Brain Reorganization Corpus Callosum *Brain Reorganization – Split Brain – a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them *Brain Reorganization * The information highway from the eyes to the brain * * * Plasticity: the flexibility of the brain to alter its neural connections following injury * Hemispherectomy: a radical surgical procedure in which one of the cerebral hemispheres is removed to control life-threatening epileptic seizures. The remaining healthy hemisphere takes over many of the functions of the removed hemisphere. * Plasticity is highest in childhood, but it also occurs in older adults. *Brain Reorganization -- the brain’s capacity for modification as evident in brain reorganization following damage (functional plasticity) -- and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development *Structural Plasticity) * * 1. * 2. * 3. * 4. * 5. Avoid Harmful Substances Exercise Eat Sensibly Challenge Yourself Mentally Wear Your Helmet/Seat Belt. * * Beneficial substances allowed to enter the brain through the blood-brain barrier are blood gases, such as oxygen, and small nutritional molecules. * An important nutritional molecule transported out of the bloodstream in this way is glucose. * Scientists have learned how to trick the bloodbrain barrier into accepting therapeutic drugs through the bloodstream to the brain. *Blood-Brain Barrier