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THE BIOLOGY OF BRAIN AND GLANDULAR
SYSTEM IN THE STUDY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Introduction
The biology of the human brain in the study of human behavior
provides information about the structure of nerve cells, neurons
and other brain cells that are important to influence human actions in
the environment. The structures and functions of neurons are studied
in cell body, dendrites and axons including its kinds such as the
sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. While the
nervous system is divided into two main parts : a central nervous
system and a peripheral nervous system.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and
spinal cord, which lie within the bony cases of the skull and spine.
The parts of the nervous system outside the skull and pine make up
the peripheral nervous system (PNS).There are three major divisions of
the brain that are explain in this article the hindbrain, the midbrain,
and the forebrain.
The cerebral hemisphere are explained into the four main lobes
namely: (1)Frontal lobe; (2) Temporal Lobe; (3)Parietal Lobe; and
(4)Occipital Lobe. On the cerebral cortex is presented on its functions
of various areas such as motor cortex, sensory cortex, somatosensory
cortex, visual cortex and the auditory cortex. For the spinal cord, this
is explain on the two general categories the supraspinal activity and
reflex which provide the channel of information and automatic
responses of the body.
The article provides a matrix presentation of the glandular
system such as the pituitary gland, thyroid glands, parathyroid
glands, adrenal glands, pancreas glands, gonad and sex glands, and
thymus and pineal glands. There are important discussions made
about specific endocrine glands as to its location and function;
hormone and disorders that in some way may affect the human
behavior.
The Biology of Brain in the Study of Human Behavior
The human brain is estimated to contain at least 150 billion
nerve cells, called neurons, each of which is connected to many
others, making the number of connections immense. The connections
between nerve cells are called synapses. But even through there are
an enormous number of connections, research shows that they are
arranged in an orderly fashion – certain cells connect only with certain
others. Because physiological psychologists are interested in the
involvement of the nervous system in behavior and experience, it is
important for them to know the ways in which the living tissue of the
nervous system in complex psychological functions must be grounded.
In this section, we shall see that neurons carry information
electrically. At the connections between neurons – at the synapse – we
shall also see that information is passed from one neuron to another
by chemical known as neurotransmitters. ( Morgan, 1986)
Nerve cells, or neurons, are the information carriers of the
nervous system. Each has a cell body that contains the machinery to
keep neuron alive, and each has two types of fiber: dendrites and an
axon. The dendrites are usually relatively short and have many
branches, which receive stimulation from the other neurons. The
axon, on the other hand, is often quite long. (for instance, axons
connecting the toes with the spinal cord can be more than a meter in
length.) the function of the axon is to conduct nerve impulses to other
neurons or to muscles and glands. Since the dendrites and the cell
body receive information that is then conducted along the axon, the
direction of transmission is from dendrites to the fine axon tips. In
many cases, the axon – but not the cell body or the dendrites – has a
white, fatty covering called the myelin sheath. This covering increases
the speed with which nerve impulses are sent down the axon.
( Morgan ,2006)
In simplest term, the neurons are cell specially adapted to
transmit messages from one part of the body to another in the form of
electrochemical impulses. These are three distinct parts of the
neurons; ( Cornista and Lupato ,2000)
1. Cell Body. The cell body is the central part of the neuron which
contains the nucleus. The nucleus is a dense area within the
cell body which contains structures necessary to the life and
development of the neurons.
2. Dendrites. These are small extensions on th cell body that
receive messages from the neurons and carry them towards the
cell body.
3. Axons. These are relatively elongated part of a neuron that carry
messages away from the cell body. Many neurons are covered or
insulated by a fatty, whitish substance called myelin sheath.
The tiny gaps or space between the axon terminals of one
neurons and the receptive site ( dendrite, cell body and axon) of
another neuron are called the synapses. They are so small that
it cannot be seen in the microscope.
Neurons are seldom found in isolation. Rather, they are bound
together in bundles called a nerve. Neurons are categorized according
to the structures between which they conduct messages. These are
three kinds of neurons: (Cornista and Lupato, 2000)
1. Sensory neurons ( Afferent neurons). These neurons cary
nerve impulses or information from the sense organs to the
brain. Fro example, when you touch an ice cube, the
neurons that sense could send this message to your brain.
2. Interneurons.These are neurons that receive sensory
messages and send responses. They are found only in the
brain and spinal cord. In the example above, many
interneurons in your brain act together to form awareness
that you are touching an ice cube.
3. Motor neurons ( Efferent neurons) These are neurons that
carry a response from the interneurons to the muscles,
glands, and internal organs of the body. In the example of
the ice cube, the message being carried by the motor
neurons might be to stimulate the hand’s muscle to pick up
the ice cube and place it in a glass.
The nervous system is divided into two main parts : a central
nervous system and a peripheral nervous system. The central nervous
system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, which lie within
the bony cases of the skull and spine. The parts of the nervous system
outside the skull and pine make up the peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
1. The Peripheral Nervous System
It consists largely of nerve fibers, or axons, which (1) carry nerve
impulses from the sensory receptors of the body inward to the
central nervous system and (2) carry nerve impulses for the
movement of muscles and the excitation of certain glands outward
from the central nervous system. The following are two divisions of
the peripheral nervous system: ( Morgan, 1986)
a. Somatic Nervous System . The motor fibers activate the
striped muscles of the body , such as those that move the
arms and legs, while the sensory fibers of this system come
from the major receptors, and so on.
b. Automatic Nervous System.. The motor fibers activate the
smooth muscles of such bodily organs as the stomach,
cause secretion from the glands such as the salivary
glands, and regulate activity in the special type of muscle
found in the heart.It is thus a smooth-muscle, glandular,
and heart-muscle system. Sensory fibers in the automatic
system carry information from the internal bodily organ
that is perceived as pain, warm, cold, or pressure.The
subdivisions of the automatic nervous system are:
(1) Sympatheticn System. It is active in states of
arousal and in stressful situations.
(2) Parasympathetic System. It is active
quiet states.
in resting,
2. Central Nervous System
a. Brain .The brain is that portion of the nervous system that is
encased in the cranial bones. It weighs three pounds and contains 90
percent of the body’s neurons. It consists approximately of 10 billion
neurons woven in an intricate pattern. The brain accomplishes many
tasks. Among its chief functions are : (1) it receives sensory
information about the external world and may issue motor commands
in response to this information; (2) it maintains and controls vital
internal bodily functions, such as circulation, digestion, and the
maintenance of body temperature;(3) it controls muscular
movements;(4) it stores memories; and (5) it provides emotions .The
three major divisions of the brain are the hindbrain,the midbrain,
and the forebrain.The following major divisions are presented below
based on the descriptions and expalantions made by Cornista and
Lupato (2000):
1.Hindbrain. This is the lowest part of the brain,located at the rear
base of the skull. It consists of the medulla,pons, and cerebellum.
The medulla through which many afferent and efferent signal
pass lies just above the spinal cord. It is responsible for controlling
heartbeat and breathing . It controls the muscles that are used in
such vital activities of the body like chewing, swallowing, sneezing,
coughing, and salivation.
Within the medulla is a latticdlike network of nerve cells called
the reticular formation which directly controls a person’s state of
arousal, sleep-walking cycle. It extends into and through the pons and
the midbrain. A damage to it can result in an almost permanent
coma- like state of sleep.
The pons is a bundle of nerve fibers that connect both
hemisphere of the cerebellum. It transmits neural impulses toward
and downward within the central nervous system. Helps control
chewing and facial expression. The cerebellum consists of two
rounded lumps located at the back of and above the medulla.the word
“ cerebellum” means “ little brain” which was derived from the fact
that it looks like a miniature version of the forebrain .The parts of the
cerebellum serve different function. One area is involved in
maintaining a sense of balance and equiblirium. Another is involved
in coordinating muscular movement. Damage to these area can cause
ataxia, a condition characterized by drunken movements, lack of
balance and severe tremors.
2. The Midbrain. It is the smallest of the three primary division of the
brain. It lies near the top of the brain stem . Through this structure
passes all neural information sent between the brain and the spinal
cord. The midbrain contains centers fro visual and auditory reflexes.
3. The Forebrain. It is the highest part of the brain and fills one-half of
the cavity of the skull. It is responsible for the most complex aspects
of behavior and mental life. The forebrain is composed of two main
structures: the diencephalion and the telecephalon.

Diencephalon. The diencephalons is itself composed of two
structures: the thalamus and hypothalamus .
a) The Thalamus is a structure deeply embedded within the
brain that receives a great deal of sensory inputs from
other portions of the nervous system and then transmits
such information to the cerebral hemisphere and other
parts of the brain
b) The hypothalamus is a small structure located just below
the thalamus. It regulates the autonomic nervous system,
thus influencing such reactions a sweating, salivating,
shedding tears, secreting digestive juices, and changes in
blood pressure.
It plays a key role in the process of homeostasismaintaining or keeping the body’s temperament at optimal
level. It is involved in many complex behaviors. Hunger,
thirst, and sex drives, for example, are regulated in part, by
the hypothalamus. Damage to the hypothalamus can disrupt
these drives. It results in an overwhelming urge to eat,
imbalance in the regulation of blood sugar, and consequently
obesity. It also causes the sex organs to degenerate and the
sex drives to disappear.

Telecephalon or the Cerebrum. It is the largest part of the brain.
It comprises of three main structure: the basal ganglia , the
limbic system and the cerebral hemisphere.
a) The basal ganglia are group of brain structures that lie
beneath the cortex. Their principal role seems to be the
control of movement. The basal ganglia are deeply
involved in the initiation and integration of movement
and the maintenance of posture. Damage to the basal
ganglia interferes with muscle tone, posture, and
movement. It results to Parkison’s disease, a condition
characterized by involuntary shaking of the limbs and
heads.
b) The limbic system is an interconnected group of
structures which form a loop and are closely connected
with the hypothalamus and the inner surface of the
cortex. Within the limbic system are the hippocampus
and the amygdale.

The hippocampus is involved in the process of
learning and memory. Damage in hippocampus
will result to severe memory loss or inability to
remember
events.
Malfunction
of
thehippocampus is involved in alzheimer’s
disease, a common form of senility among the
elderly.

The amygdalia is involved in the control of
emotional behavior. Surgical removal of the
amygdale in human beings has been one way
of treating extremely violent behavior.
The cerebral hemisphere are two large structures that lie above
the brains central core, one on the left side called the left hemisphere,
the other on the right side called the right hemisphere.These two
hemispheres are joined by the corpus callosum , a massive bundle of
more than a million fibers.The four main lobes of the cerebral
hemisphere are: (Worthman,1988)
1. Frontal lobe. It lies just above the eyes. It may be involved in
decision making> The motor cortex is a part of the frontal lobe.
2. Temporal Lobe. It lies just above the ears. It is involved in
hearing,in speech production and in emotional behavior.
3. Parietal Lobe. It lies at the very top of the brain. Sensory input
from the skin receptors and muscles come this part.
4. Occipital Lobe. It lies at the back of the head just above the
neck. This is the visual input area of the brain.
The cerebral cortex is the gray matter that covers the cerebral
hemisphere. This is an thin wrinkled covering which contains billion
of neurons. The cerebral cortex can be divided according to the
functions its various areas perform : ( (Bernstein,1988)
1. Motor Cortex. It lies in the front lobe. It controls body
movements. Damage to this area is followed by weakness or
paralysis of specific muscles, depending on the location of
injury.
2. Sensory Cortex. This is the part of the cerebral cortex which is
located in the parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. It receives
stimulus information from the skin, eye and ears, respectively.
The cerebral cortex involved in the discussion of sensory cortex
are the following:
a. Somatosensory Cortex. It lies in the partial lobe. It
receives and interprets touch and pressure in the skin.
Damage to this portion of the cortex generally impairs the
sense of touch.
b. Visual Cortex. It is located in the occipital lobe. It is
involved in receiving and analyzing visual information.
Damage to this area will result to the inability of a person
to distinguish the shapes of objects.
c. Auditory Cortex. This is located in the temporal lobe. It
processes auditory information. Stimulation in this area
can produce hallucination of sounds. The person may
also hear things, but the sensation is meaningless and
rather chaotic – clicks, buzzes, booms, hums.
3. Association Cortex. Association cortex appears in all the lobes.
These are parts of the cerebral cortex that receive information
from more than one sense or combine sensory and motor
information to perform such complex cognitive tasks or
associating words with images or abstract. Association areas
form a large part of the cerebral cortex in human beings. This is
one reason why damage to association areas can create severe
deficits in all kinds of mental abilities. One of the most
devastating, called aphasia, involves difficulty in producing or
understanding speech.
B. Spinal Cord. The two general categories of activity are handled by
the spinal cord. (Mc Gaugh, Thompson and Nelson,1977)
1. Supraspinal Activity. The spinal cord acts to channel information
to and from the body and brain. The cerebral cortex and other
brain structures controlling movement of the body convey activity
down the cord to motoneurons which, in turn, control the
muscles. Motoneurons are large neurons with bodies in the
spinal cord and long processes called axons extending to the
muscles. The axons of the motoneurons that control muscles in
the foot, for example extend all the way from the lower spinal
cord, down the leg, then synapse with the muscle. All bodily
sensations are conveyed up the spinal cord to the brain.
2. Reflex. This is the other general category of spinal cord function.
The spinal reflexes are somatic and autonomic responses of the
body that can occur in the absence of the brain. The knee jerk
reflex is a good example and it can be observed even after the
spinal cord has been severed from the brain as in a paraplegic
accidents victims.
C. Brain Stem . This refers to the structures of the midbrain and
hindbrain, which are overlain by the cerebral hemispheres.It also
represents the continuation and expansion of the spinal cord in the
brain and contains all the ascending and descending fiber tracts
interconnecting the brain and spinal cord, together with a number
of important nerve-cell. The vital autonomic control nuclei
concerned with respiration, heart action, and gastrointestinal
function are located in the lower part of the brain stem.
The Glandular System in the Study of Human Behavior
The matrix presentation of the glandular system shows the
discussions made by Cornista and Lupato (2000) with is presented in
the textual form on the topic “ The Glandular System’”in their book
General Psychology with Drug Education. The general emphasis about
the presentation of the glandular system provides information the
specific endocrine glands as to its location and function; hormone and
disorders.
I. PITUITARY GLAND
Pituitary Gland
Location:
It situated
just below the
hypothalamus.
Function :
It is called the
“master gland”
because it
produces the
largest number of
different
hormones,
controls and
activates the
secretion of
several other
endocrine glands .
For example: It
sends hormones
to the thyroid,
adrenals, gonads,
in order to
stimulate them to
produce their own
Hormone
Disorders
The functioning parts of the
pituitary glands are the
posterior lobe and the
anterior lobe.
1. Posterior lobe secretes two
important types of hormones.
These are
1. Diabetes Insidus. This
refers to the deficiency
caused by
undersecretion of the
vasopessin hormone
which characterized by
excessive amount of
urine discharge
(polyurus, it results in
dehydration, extreme
weakness, and
sometimes disorientation
in a person.
* Oxytocin . This is a
hormone which stimulates
muscular contraction in the
uterus during labor and
release of milk during
nursing.
* Vasopressin ( antidiuretic
hormone). It controls
excretion of water through
the kidneys and maintains
blood pressure at proper
level.
2. Anterior lobe secretes
several important hormones
which have to do with
growth, and the functioning
of other endocrine glands.
There are six types of
hormones secreted by the
anterior lobe.
2. Giantism. This
disorder is caused by the
oversecretion of growth
hormone (somatotropin)
in early childhood.This is
characterized by the
overdevelopment or
overgrowth of the entire
skeleton.
3. Acromegaly. If the
oversecretion of
somatotropin occurs in
later life. It results in
acromegaly which is
characterized by the
overdevelopment of
hormones.
* Somatotropin. This is a
growth hormone . It causes
the growth of muscles,bones,
and glands
certain portion of the
skeleton, particularly the
extremities, the hands,
and feet.
* Thyrotophin or Thyroidstimulating hormones (TSH).
It causes thyroid gland to
secrete thyroxin.
4. Dwarfism. This
deficiency is caused by
the undersecretion of a
somatotropin hormone.It
is characterized by a
condition in which
skeletal structure reach
and maximum
development, thus ,
producing a mimiature
person whose bodily
proportions and mental
ability are usually
normal.
* Adrenocorticotrophic
(ACTH). It stimulates release
of adrenal hormones involved
*Follicle-stimulating
hormone(FSH). This hormone
causes formation of the
sperm cell and the egg cell (
ovum).
* Lateinizing hormone (LH).
This hormone causes
ovulation, and maturation of
sperm and egg cells.
5. Galactorrhea. An
abnormal milk secretion
which is caused by high
production level of
prolactin.
* Prolactin or Mammotrophic
hormone (MH). It stimulates
milk production.
II.THYROID GLANDS
Thyroid Glands
Location:
It is a
butterfly –
shaped gland
which folds
around the
front and either
side of the
trachea (
windpipe), at
Hormone
* Thyroxin. This is a
hormone responsible
in regulating
carbohydrate, lipid,
metabolism and
growth development
Disorders
* Hydrothyrodism (mysedema).
This disorder is caused by the
undersecretion of thyroid which is
characterized by obesity, slowed
heartbeat, lowered body
temperature, reduced sweat gland
activity and lack of mental
alertness.
*Calcitomin. It
* Cretinism. This disorder occurs
prevents excessive rise when the undersecretionn of this
in blood calcium
gland occurs from birth or early
the base of the
neck.
infancy. Without treatment, a
child with this disorder becomes a
stocky dwarf with coarse skin,
oversized tongue and chalky, pegshaped teeth, and mentally
retarded.
Function:
It is
responsible in
regulating the
body’s
metabolism.
*Hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis)
This condition is brought by the
oversecretion of thyroid gland. It is
characterized by loss of weight,
profuse sweating, intense thirst,
accelerated heart rate, general
excitability and insomia
* Goiter. It is a disorder caused by
the swelling of the thyroid gland
brought about by the gland’s
overwork, hence, the inability to
secret enough hormones. A lack of
iodine in the diet is a contributing
factor in many goiter cases.
III. PARATHYROID GLANDS
Parathyroid
Glands
Hormone
Location:
* Parathormone. It
These are
elevates calcium
two pairs of
levels in blood by
small peastimulating calcium
shaped glands reabsorption from
attracted to the bone and kidneys.
posterior
surface of the
thyroid glands
Function:
These
glands control
the balance of
various
minerals in the
blood stream,
particularly
calcium.
Disorders
Hypoparathyroidism. This condition
is caused by the undersecretion of
parathormone ( low serum calcium)
which is characterized by
involuntary muscle twitching or
spasm and tetany. Severe or acute
tetany may lead to death due to
respiratory or cardiac spasm if not
treated with calcium.
Hyperparathyriodism. This is an
excessive parathormone secretion
which will lead to abnormally
elevated serium calcium
(hypercalcemia) . Chronic
parathormone hypersecretion will
lead to a disorder of excessively
thinned bones (osteoporosis) that
may cause easy fracturing.
Pseudohypoparathyroidism. It is a
rare genetic form of a disease, in
which the afflicted person
demonstrates normal or high
secretionof parathormone from
intact parathyroid glands, but suffer
from peripheral insensitivity of “end
organ resistance”. This individual
has a characteristic appearanceshort stature, round face, abnormal
teeth, mental retardation, and
shortening of the digits (especially to
the fourth finger) of the hands
IV. ADRENAL GLANDS
Adrenal
Glands
Location:
They are
located just
below the
kidney
Function :
They are
extremely
important in
neural
functioning
and in the
ability of the
body to cope
with stress.
Hormone
Each adrenal glands is
composed of two distinct
parts:
1. Adrenal Cortea. This is
the outer area of the gland.
Its hormones are:
*Glucocorticoids.
Hormones which control
many basic chemical
mechanisms within the
body, including metabolism
of carbohydrates and
functioning of reproductive
organs.
*Mineralocoracoids.
Hormone that control the
electrolyte balance of
sodium, chloride and
potassium in the body.
2. Adrenal Medulla. This is
the inner layer of the
adrenal gland.Its hormone
are:
* Adrenalin ( Epinephrine).
This is the emergency
hormone of an individual.It
will cause an increased
output of blood from the
heart.
Disorders
Addison’s Disease. This is a
condition caused by the
undersecretion of
glucoconticoids which is
characterized by marked
changes in an individual’s
behavior. He becomes weak,
lethargic, loses his appetite
for food and sexual desire,
and suffers a widespread of
physiological functions.
Cushing’s Disease. This
condition results when
oversecretion of
glucoconticoids happens
during adult stage whichis
characterized by round face,
growth of beard, and
cessation of menstruation.
* Nonepineplrine. Cases
greater vasoconstriction
and elevation of the blood
pressure.
V. PANCREAS GLANDS
Pancreas
Glands
Location :
It is located
near the
stomach and
attached by a
duct to the
intestinal tract.
Function:
Hormone
Disorders
Glucogen. It releases
glucose into the
bloodstream from the
glycogen stored in the
liver.
Diabetes mellitus (
Hyperglycemia). This condition is
due to undersecretion of insulin,
thus, there is an abnormally large
amount of sugar in the blood
plasma. Even up to the present,
Insulin. It enables
there is no known cure for
glucose to move out of diabetes, but periodic injection of
the blood into the cells insulin counteracts the symptoms
of muscles and other
so effectively that diabetes can
tissues
now look forward to long and
nearly normal lives.
The
pancreas
through the
duct, delivers a
pancreatic
secretion into
the digestion
Hyperinsulin. This deficiency is
characterized by oversupply of
insulin .There is rapid utilization
of sugar in blood resulting in
extreme weakness, cold, clammy
sweating, and ever causing the
individual to collapse.
Hypoglycemia. This is a condition
characterized by low blood sugar
in the individual.The hypoglycemic
person has insufficient energy
available for the body’s need.
V. GONADS OR SEX GLANDS
Gonads or Sex
Glands
Hormone
Disorders
A. Male Gonads
(Testes)
Location :
It is located
Androgens ( The
best-known of these
androgens is
Impotency, sterility,
homosexuality ( Factors of
homosexuality: hormonal,
along the pelvis.
Function:
The testes are
responsible in the
regulation of sperm
production and the
development of the
male secondary sex
characteristics (
growth of pubic
hair, change in
voice, masculine
muscle formation,
growth of beard
testosterone)
environmental, and genetic
abnormality.
*Estrogen and
Progesterones which
are the two main
types of female
hormones are also
produced by the
male gonads but are
more abundant in
females.
B. Female Gonads
( Ovaries)
Location :
It is located
along the pelvis
Functons:
The ovaries are
responsible of
producing the
female gametes (egg
cells) . They are
responsible of
secreting hormones
that regulate the
secondary sex
characteristics
such as : the
development of
breast, the
widening of the
hips, he growth of
pubic hair, etc.
Estrogen. It is the
hormones
responsible for the
appearance of the
secondary
characteristics.
Progesterone. It is
the hormone which
prepares the uterine
mucosa for the
implantation of the
fetus.
Relaxin. It is the
hormone which
relaxes the ligaments
in the pelvis girdle
and facilitate birth.
Androgens. These are
male hormones
which are also
Undersecretion of the
hormones will make the
secondary sex characteristics
never attain their mature
condition, therefore, there will
be regression of he secondary
sex characteristics. Lesbian
characteristic will be
observable.
Adrenogenital Syndrome. It is
caused by the oversecretion of
androgen. Females are born
with what appear to be male
reproductive organ.
produced by the
female gonads but
are more abundant
in males.
VI. THYMUS AND PINEAL GLANDS
Thymus and Pineal
Glands
Hormone
1. Thymus Gland
Location :
It is two-lobed gland
located behind the
breastbone and between
the lungs
Thymosins. This is a
group of hormones
secreted by the thymus
gland which play a role
in the body’s natural
immunity.
Function:
The gland is important
in the maturation of
certain white blood cells (
a class of lymphocytes)
which defend against
infection and form a
surveillance system by
which damaged or
malignant cells are
detected and eliminated
from the body. It has the
intriguing characteristics
of shrinking in size as a
person grows up.
2. Pineal Gland
Location:
This is a tiny, pineconeshaped body which is
Melatonin.This is a
hormone which
influences daily
biorhythms, sexual
development ( functions
Disorders
situated near the
hypothalamus at the base
of the brain
in the development of the
gonads and reproductive
cycles.
Function:
The pineal gland has
follicles that suggest a
glandular function and
some calcium-containing
bits that are called “brain
sand.”
REFERENCES
Bernstein, Douglas et. al. (1988) Psychology.Boston. Houthon
Miffin
Cornista, Aleli N.
and Lupato, Teresita A. (2000) General
Psychology
with
Drug
Education.
SLA
publishing
House.Dagupan City
McGaugh, James L., Thompson, Richard F. and Nelson, Thomas
O.(1977) Psychology I : an Experimental Approach.U.S.A.
:San Francisco, California Albion Publishing Company
Morgan, Clifford et.al. ( 1986) Introduction to Psychology, 7th
Edition. New York: Mc Graw- Hill Book Compay
Thompson, M., Grace, C., & Cohen, L. (2001). Best Friends, Worst
Enemies: Understanding the Social Lives of Children. New
York: Ballantine Books.
Worthman, Camille B. Loftus , Elizabeth (1988) Psychology. New
York Alfred Knopk Inc.