Download SinirBilimin Kısa Tarihi

Sinirbilim Yaz Okulu
SinirBilimin Kısa Tarihi
Adnan Kurt
v1: 27 Haziran 2011
Sinirbilim Nedir?
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system.[1] Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of
biology. However, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that collaborates with other fields such as chemistry,
computer science, engineering, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, physics, and psychology. The term neurobiology is
usually used interchangeably with the term neuroscience, although the former refers specifically to the biology of the
nervous system, whereas the latter refers to the entire science of the nervous system.
The scope of neuroscience has broadened to include different approaches used to study the molecular, cellular,
developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system. The
techniques used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of individual
nerve cells to imaging of sensory and motor tasks in the brain. Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have also
been aided by the study of neural networks.
Given the increasing number of scientists who study the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations
have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists and educators. For example, the International Brain
Research Organization was founded in 1960,[2] the International Society for Neurochemistry in 1963,[3] the European
Brain and Behaviour Society in 1968,[4] and the Society for Neuroscience in 1969.[5]
Makrosefali hastasının MRI görüntüsü
Ana Akımlar
The history of Neuroscience has been shaped by three major debates:
Mind vs. brain debate (monism/dualism): are mind (cognition/behavior) and brain (physical substance) separate (dualist)
or unified monist) entities?
Localism vs. holism: do neurons and brain areas have specific functions (localism) or is it fairly undifferentiated, working
more as an aggregate field (holism)?
Nature of neural communication: Is the mind completely "created" by the brain? Can consciousness be reduced to
neurons? Is there a soul that exists beyond the neurons? These questions are still hotly debated.
Drawing by Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1899) of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum
Mısırlılar
Egyptians
1700 bc
[Mind-Brain]
First written account of the "brain," its anatomy, the meninges (covering of the brain) and CSF (Cerebrospinal fluid) on a
payrus called the Edwin Smith Surgical papyrus. It may have been written by Imhotep (did anyone see the movie, "The
Mummy?"). But they did not think much of this organ given that unlike the other organs, it was discarded, not preserved
after death. Picture is Egyptian hieroglyph writing for "brain."
Plato
Plato
427-347 bc
[Mind-Brain]
Created near Athens the Academy, which was the most influential school in the ancient world. He taught there until his
death, and Aristotle was his most famous student. He believed the brain was the seat of mental processes.
Aristo
Aristotle
384-322 bc
[Mind-Brain]
Believed the mind was located in the heart, which contained all emotions and thinking. The brain was instead a radiator
used to cool the heart. He experimented by dissecting animals (human dissection was forbidden).
Galen
Galen
130-200 ad
[Neural Communication]
Hailed as a great surgeon. Believed the brain receives sensory information and is responsible for motor control, using
the mechanism of fluid energies. (Picture shows surgical procedures described by Galen.)
Dekart
René Descartes
1596-1650
[Mind-Brain]
[Neural Communication]
Believed nerves contain fluids, or "animal spirits," which are responsible for the flow of sensory and motor information in
the body. He believed in the "Balloonist Theory" which asserted that little balloons expanding would cause motion. He
was adualist, believing that the mind and body are separate, communicating via the pineal gland.
Aydınlanma
Age of Enlightenment
1700's
[Neural Communication]
From the beginning of the 18th century, known as the Age of Enlightenment, it was discovered that the nervous system
is electrical in nature. The previous Ballonist Theory was disproved using the technique of water displacement. (Voltaire)
Müller
Johannes Müller
1801-1858
[Neural Communication]
Doctrine of specific nerve energies. Different sensations are caused by different energies in nerves. Today we know this
is not true, different receptors interpret the same action potentials.
Aristo
Franz Joseph Gall
1758-1828
[Localist/Holist Debate]
Advocate of cerebral localization. One of the founders of phrenology, but used it more as a spectacle than as a
scientist. With Spurzheim, divided the brain in 35 separate functions, ranging from concrete concepts like language and
color to abstract ones like hope or self-esteem. (Gall was jealous of a friend who was very good with language and
memory. Because this friend had big bulging eyes, he though the brain was bigger behind it, hence those brain functions
must be behind the eyes!)
Purkinje
Johannes Pukinje
1787-1869
[Neural Communication]
He was first to describe a nerve cell. Contributed heavily to the field of experimental psychology. Explored sensory and
visual experience after stimulation, by applying pressure and electrical current to the eyeball, etc. Discovered large
nerve cells ("Pukinje Cells) with many branching extensions in the cerebral cortex.
Fluorens
Pierre Flourens
1794-1867
[Localist/Holist Debate]
Flourens ablated the cortical tissue of dogs, rabbits and birds, showing that the eventual recovery was due to the
brain's aggregate field, where the entire brain participated in behavior. He was a strong opponent of the localization
theory, virtually disproving phrenologists, and advocated a holisticview of the brain, where other parts of the brain could
take over the function of damaged ones.
Broca
Pierre Paul Broca
1824-1880
[Localist/Holist Debate]
Advocated functional localization by cerebral convolution. In 1862, showing brain lesions in a stroke patient who could
understand language but could not speak (could only say "tan"), he demonstrated that the left frontal lobe was
responsible for articular speech. Demonstrated this in several patients. This region has since been named Broca’s area.
Wernicke
Carl Wernicke
1848-1904
[Localist/Holist Debate]
Like Broca, Wernicke showed a similar stroke victim. But this time the patient could speak but made no sense. The
damaged area was around where the temporal and parietal lobes meet in the posterior part of the left hemisphere. His
findings further revived the localizationist view.
Fritsch
Gustav Fritsch
1838-1907
[Neural Communication] [Localist/Holist Debate]
Further supported localization of function, stimulating the brain surfaces of live dogs and frogs using electricity. This
resulted in characteristic movements in the neck and hind legs.
Brodmann
Korbinian Brodmann
1868-1918
[Localist/Holist Debate]
Categorized the brain into 52 distinct areas based on the cellular organization of the cortex in the respective regions,
and therefore helped to support the localist view, which was already very strong. This was accomplished through tissue
stains (i.e., histology), in order to visualize the different cell types. The difference between individual cell regions is
called cytoarchitectonics, or cellular architecture.
Golgi
Camillo Golgi
1843-1956
[Neural Communication]
Developed a silver stain that would permit the full visualization of a single neuron. He believed the brain was a
continuous mass of tissue that shares a single cytoplasm. Though this theory was disproved by Cajal, they both shared
the Nobel Prize in 1906.
Cajal
Santiago Ramón Y Cajal
1852-1934
[Neural Communication]
Discovered that neurons were discrete unitary entities, and that they conducted electrical signals in only one direction.
He established the Neuron Doctrine, which is the fundamental organizational and functional principle of the nervous
system, stating that the neuron is the anatomical, physiological, genetic and metabolic unit of the nervous system. He
won the Nobel Prize in 1906. The Neuron Doctrine proposes that the neuron is the anatomical, physiological, genetic
and metabolic unit of the nervous system:
Neurons are discrete and autonomous cells that can interact
Synapses are gaps that separate neurons
Information is transmitted in one direction from dendrites (input) to the axon (output)
Lashley
K. S. Lashley
1890-1958
[Localist/Holist Debate]
Worked extensively with rats to discover where memory lies. He searched for the neural components of memory, which
he called engrams. He systematically lesioned different percentages of rats' brains and then tested them in mazes they
had known well. This resulted in a gradual but consistent degradation in performance. Hence the engram is not a
specific connection, but rather the sum of many connections. This supported the holistic view.
Penfield
Wilder Penfield
1891-1976
[Localist/Holist Debate]
One of the great neurosurgeons of all times, and a leading authority on epilepsy. While stimulating different sections of
the cortex of epileptic patients during neurosurgery, he found that activating multiple cells would produce specific results
(e.g., a patient would speak out "Grandma" -- hence the "Grandmother cell"), and on their connected regions.
His localizationist views profoundly affected modern neurology and other scientific fields.
Modern Zamanlar
Modern Day
2000[Neural Communication]
The communication of discrete neurons (brain cells) using electrical and chemical signals (neurotransmitters) is well
established and accepted (Neuron Doctrine).
[Localist/Holist Debate]
Extreme localism and holism have both been replaced by "connectionism." This view contends that lower level or
primary sensory/motor functions are strongly localized but higher-level functions, like object recognition, memory, and
language are the result of interconnections between brain areas. In addition, even within areas that seem to be localized
for a particular function, that function is distributed among many neurons. There appears to be no "grandmother cell."
[Mind/Brain]
Although most cognitive neuroscientists must believe that the mind and brain are related to each other in some way (or
else their work would be meaningless!), many also believe in a soul. How can we reconcile these views? It is necessary
to reconcile them?
Modern Zamanlar
Çözülmemiş Problemler
Some of the yet unsolved problems of neuroscience include:
Consciousness: What is the neuronal basis of subjective experience, cognition,
wakefulness, alertness, arousal and attention? How is the "hard problem of consciousness" solved? What is its
function?[1]
Perception: How does the brain transfer sensory information into coherent, private percepts? What are the rules by
which perception is organized? What are the features/objects that constitute our perceptual experience
of internal and external events? How are the senses integrated? What is the relationship between subjective experience
and the physical world?
Learning and memory: Where do our memories get stored and how are they retrieved again? How can learning be
improved? What is the difference between explicit andimplicit memories?
Neuroplasticity: How plastic is the mature brain?
Development and evolution: How and why did the brain evolve? What are the molecular determinants of individual brain
development?
Free will, particularly the Neuroscience of free will
Sleep: Why do we dream? What are the underlying brain mechanisms? What is its relation to anesthesia?
Cognition and decisions: How and where does the brain evaluate reward value and effort (cost) to modulate behavior?
How does previous experience alter perception and behavior? What are the genetic and environmental contributions to
brain function?
Language: How is it implemented neurally? What is the basis of semantic meaning?
Diseases: What are the neural bases (causes) of mental diseases like psychotic disorders
(e.g. mania, schizophrenia), Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease oraddiction? Is it possible to recover loss of
sensory or motor function?
[edit]
Çok Eskiden
The study of the nervous system dates back to ancient Egypt. Evidence of trepanation, the surgical practice of either
drilling or scraping a hole into the skull with the purpose of curing headaches or mental disorders or relieving cranial
pressure, being performed on patients dates back to Neolithic times and has been found in various cultures throughout
the world. Manuscripts dating back to 1700BC indicated that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of
brain damage.[6]
Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle
Kingdomonwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that
the heart was the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, the first step of mummification is to "take a crooked piece
of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the
rest by rinsing with drugs."[7]
Sonraları
The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of Hippocrates. He believed
that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located
in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence. Plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the
rational part of the soul.[8] Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain served
to cool the blood. This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician Galen, a follower of Hippocrates and
physician to Roman gladiators, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to
their brains.
Abulcasis, Averroes,Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical
problems related to the brain. Elsewhere in medieval Europe, Vesalius (1514–1564) and René Descartes (1596–1650)
also made several contributions to neuroscience.
İçindekiler
Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining
procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s. The procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate
structures of individual neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of
theneuron doctrine, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron. Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared
the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of
neurons throughout the brain. The neuron doctrine was supported by experiments following Luigi Galvani's pioneering
work in the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. In the late 19th century, Emil du Bois-Reymond, Johannes
Peter Müller, and Hermann von Helmholtzdemonstrated that neurons were electrically excitable and that their activity
predictably affected the electrical state of adjacent neurons.
Özelleşmiş Alanlar
In parallel with this research, work with brain-damaged patients by Paul Broca suggested that certain regions of the
brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, Broca's findings were seen as a confirmation of Franz Joseph
Gall's theory that language was localized[clarification needed] and certain psychological functions were localized in
the cerebral cortex.[9][10] The localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients
conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly inferred the organization of the motor cortex by watching the
progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific
brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research still uses the Brodmann cerebral
cytoarchitectonic map (referring to study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that
distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.[11]
Modeller&Matematik
In 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals
in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, action potentials, and how they are initiated and propagated, known as
the Hodgkin-Huxley model. In 1961-2, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin-Huxley, in what is called
theFitzHugh–Nagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons
known as synapses. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the Morris-Lecar model. In
1984, J. L. Hindmarsh and R.M. Rose further modeled neurotransmission.
Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and James Schwartz examined the biochemical analysis of changes in neurons
associated with learning and memory storage.
Çağdaş Sinirbilim
The scientific study of the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century,
principally due to revolutions in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. It has become
possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. However, how networks
of neurons produce complex cognitions and behaviors is still poorly understood.
―
The task of neural science is to explain behavior in terms of the activities of the brain. How does the brain marshal
its millions of individual nerve cells to produce behavior, and how are these cells influenced by the environment...? The
last frontier of the biological sciences—their ultimate challenge—is to understand the biological basis of consciousness
and the mental processes by which we perceive, act, learn, and remember. — Eric Kandel, Principles of Neural Science,
4th ed.
‖
The nervous system is composed of a network of neurons along with other, supportive, cells (e.g., glial cells). Neurons
form functional circuits, each responsible for specific functions of behavior at the organismal level. Thus, neuroscience
can be studied at many different levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive
levels.
Moleküler Düzeyde
At the molecular level, the basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which
neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. At this level,
tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect
biological functions. The morphology, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they
relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.
At the cellular level, the fundamental questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms of how
neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically. They address how signals are processed by dendrites,
somas and axons, and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process signals in a neuron.[clarification
needed] Another major area of neuroscience is directed at investigations of the development of the nervous system.
These questions include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, neural stem cells, differentiation of
neurons and glia, neuronal migration, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, and synapse formation.
Sistem Düzeyinde
At the systems level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used
anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, sensory integration, motor coordination,
circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory. In other words, they address how these neural circuits
function and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. For example, systems level analysis addresses
questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does vision work? How do songbirds learn new songs
and bats localize with ultrasound? How does the somatosensory system process tactile information? The related fields
of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and
human behaviors. Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system
and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively.
Bilişsel Düzeyde
At the cognitive level, cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by
neural circuitry. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET,
SPECT), electrophysiology, and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from
cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how human
cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates.
Neuroscience is also allied with the social and behavioral sciences as well as nascent interdisciplinary fields such as
neuroeconomics, decision theory, and social neuroscience to address complex questions about interactions of the brain
with its environment.
Nobel Ödülleri
Year of Award
Name(s)
Field of Study
Structure of the Nervous System
1911
Golgi, Camillo
Ramon y Cajal, Santiago
Gullstrand, Allvar
1914
Barany, Robert
Physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus
1927
Wagner-Jauregg, Julius
Discovery of Malaria inoculation to treat dementia paralytica
Adrian, Edgar Douglas
Function of neurons in sending messages
Sherrington, Sir Charles Scott
Function of neurons in the brain and spinal cord
Dale, Sir Henry Hallett
Chemical transmission of nerve impulses
Loewi, Otto
Chemical transmission of nerve impulses
Erlanger, Joseph
Differentiated functions of single nerve fibers
Gasser, Herbert Spencer
Differentiated functions of single nerve fibers
Egas Moniz, Antonio Caetano Abreu
Freire
Leucotomy for certain psychoses
Hess, Walter Rudolph
The "interbrain" (hypothalamus) used to control activity of internal organs
Bovet, Daniel
Work on synthetic substances that inhibit action of body substances.
1906
1932
1936
Structure of the Nervous System
Optics of the Eye
1944
1949
1957
Nobel Ödülleri
1961
1963
1967
1970
1973
Von Bekesy, Georg
Eccles, Sir John Carew
Hodgkin, Sir Alan Lloyd
Huxley, Sir Andrew Fielding
Function of the cochlea
Ionic mechanisms of nerve cell membrane
Granit, Ragnar Arthur
Mechanisms of Vision - Wavelength discrimination of the eye
Hartline, Halden Keffer
Wald, George
Axelrod, Julius
Katz, Sir Bernard
von Euler, Ulf Svante
Lorenz, Konrad Zacharias
Tinbergen, Nikolaas
von Frisch, Karl
Mechanisms of Vision
Mechanisms of Vision - chemical processes
Ionic mechanisms of nerve cell membrane
Ionic mechanisms of nerve cell membrane
Humoral transmitters in sympathetic nerves
Release of neurotransmitters from nerve terminals
Humoral transmitters in sympathetic nerves
Ethology
Ethology
Ethology
Blumberg, Baruch S.
Mechanisms for origin and dissemination of infection disease
Gajdusek, Daniel Carleton
Mechanisms for origin and dissemination of infection disease
Guillemin, Roger
Schally, Andrew Victor
Production of peptides in the brain
Production of peptides in the brain
Cormack, Allan MacLeod
Invention of computer-assisted tomography
Hounsfield, Sir Godfrey Newbold
Invention of computer-assisted tomography
Hubel, David Hunter
Information processing in the visual system
Sperry, Roger Wolcott
Functions of the right and left hemispheres of the brain
Wiesel, Torsten N.
Information processing in the visual system
1976
1977
1979
1981
Nobel Ödülleri
1982
1986
1991
Vane, John Robert
Bergstrom, Sune K.
Cohen, Stanley
Levi-Montalcini, Rita
Neher, Erwin
Sakmann, Bert
Discovery of prostaglandins
Discovery of prostaglandins
Control of nerve cell growth
Control of nerve cell growth
Function of single ion channels in cells
Function of single ion channels in cells
Gilman, Alfred G.
Discovery of G-protein coupled receptors and their role in signal transduction
Rodbell, Martin
Discovery of G-protein coupled receptors and their role in signal transduction
Prusiner, Stanley B.
Discovery of prions; a new biological principle of infection
Carlsson, Arvid
Greengard, Paul
Kandel, Eric R.
Lauterbur, Paul C.
Mansfield, Sir Peter
MacKinnon, Roderick
Signal transduction in the nervous system/dopamine
Buck, Linda B.
Discovery of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system
Axel, Richard
Discovery of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system
1994
1997
2000
2003
2003
Signal transduction in the nervous system
Signal transduction in the nervous system/learning
Discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging
Discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging
Structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels
2004
Nobel Ödüllüler Hakkında
*When Santiago Ramon y Cajal was 11-years-old, he destroyed a neighbor's gate with a homemade cannon and spent three days in jail. 3
In 1898, Camillo Golgi reported that he discovered a ribbon-like apparatus inside neurons of the cerebellum. This structure now bears his name as the "Golgi
apparatus."
*As a soldier in the Polish army during World War II, Robert Barany was taken prisoner in 1915 and sent to Central Asia. 1
*Julius Wagner-Jauregg received a diploma of Doctor of Law.2
*Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz was shot in the leg by a patient. He spent the rest of his life in a wheel chair.
*Edgar D. Adrian was a descendent of Scottish philosopher David Hume.1
*The word synapse was first used in a book called A Textbook of Physiology, part three: The Central Nervous System, by Michael Foster and assisted by Charles S.
Sherrington, in 1897. It was probably Charles S. Sherrington who coined the term synapse. The word "synapse" comes from Greek: "syn" meaning "together" and
"haptein" meaning "to clasp."
The oldest daughter of Henry Dale married Alexander Todd. Todd was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1957. 1
*The idea for an experiment to demonstrate chemical neurotransmission came to Otto Loewi in a dream.
*Joseph Erlanger's parents immigrated from Germany to the US during the gold rush.1
Spencer Gasser was a student of Joseph Erlanger.1
*Daniel Bovet spent time in South America to learn how curare was used.1
*Georg von Bekesy worked in the research laboratory of the Hungarian Post Office.2
John Eccles was knighted in 1958.1
Alan Hodgkin married the daughter of Peyton Rous. Peyton Rous won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1966.1
Andrew F. Huxley was knighted in 1974.1
Ragnar Granit studied with Charles Sherrington.1
Haldan Hartline used horseshoe crabs in his early experiments about the visual system.
*Julius Axelrod helped develop the pain reliever called acetaminophen (Tylenol).1
*Bernard Katz served as a radar operator in the Royal Australian Air Force during World War II.1
As a student, Alfred Gilman was a member of the Yale University Concert Band.4
Martin Rodbell contracted malaria in the Philippines while serving in the Navy during World War II.4
*Nikolaas Tinbergen was sent to a concentration camp during World War II.1
*Andrew V. Schally has over 2200 publications; more than 1200 were published after he received the Nobel Prize.2
*Allan McLeod Cormack never received an MD or PhD.
*Godfrey N. Hounsfield served as a radar expert for the Royal Air Force during World War II.1
*Although David H. Hubel had never taken a biology class in high school or college, he was accepted into medical school at McGill University.2
*Torsten N. Wiesel was president of his high school's athletic association.2
*As a child, Bert Sakmann designed and built model motors, sailing ships and remote controlled airplanes.4
*Eric R. Kandel played soccer and was co-captain of the track team at Erasmus Hall High School.2
As an undergraduate at the University of Washington, Linda Buck wanted to become a psychotherapist.2
*Richard Axel delivered false teeth to dentists at the age of eleven, laid carpets at twelve and served sandwiches in a delicatessen at thirteen.2
*In 1938, Otto Loewi was jailed by the Nazis in Austria. Only when he transferred his Nobel Prize money to a Nazi-controlled bank was he allowed to leave Austria.5
Ayrıntılı Gelişim
History of Neuroscience.htm