Download What`s New in Understanding the Brain

What’s New in Understanding
of the Brain? A Synopsis.
Presented by Charles T. Krebs, PhD
The Lydian Center for Innovative Medicine
777 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, MA
www.lydiancenter.com
What is Learning?
Learning can be defined as the ability to
acquire knowledge or a skill through instruction
or experience, or simply modification of behaviour
in response to experience.
Memory can be defined as the capacity of
storing, retrieving and acting upon knowledge,
or the ability to recall thoughts, thus our
learning is dependent upon our memory.
Learning is both Conscious
and Subsconcious
What is 4 + 4 = ?
Answer = 8
How did you do this?
Where in your Brain did you do this?
Little of Thinking is Conscious!
80% of Brain Function is totally
Subconscious
with Consciousness only appearing at
the Highest Levels of Processing!
Conscious Perception only begins at Cortical Level 3:
Sensory Processing
Component 1
Sensory
Receptor
Receptor
Initial CNS
Sensory Processing
Brainstem nuclei
Brainstem
Subconscious
Long-term Memories
Cortical Association Areas
Sight
Assoc. Area
Sensory Processing
Component 2
Sensory Processing
Component 3
RAS
Cerebellum
Cortical
Level 1
Thalamic
Relay
Cortical
Level 1
Lim bic
Subcon scious
Cortical
Level 1
Amygdala
Coarse-Grained
Sensory experience
Brainstem
Subconscious
Cortical
Level 2
Cortical
Level 2
Smell
Assoc. Area
Taste
Assoc. Area
Medial Temporal
Lobe
Limbic Subconscious
Retrieval from Memory
Cortical
Level 3
Cortical
Level 2
Cortical
Level 4
Cortical
Level 2
Cortical
Level 3
Cortical
Level 2
Cortical
Level 2
Cortical Processing
Subconscious
Sound
Assoc. Area
Touch
Assoc. Area
Conscious Cortical
Perception
Hippocampus
(Now Time
Short-term Memory)
Conscious Limbic
Now Time Awareness
Working Memory
(Dorsolateral
Frontal Cortex)
Conscious Cortical
Thinking about Sensory
Experience
Schematic Neural Flow of Sensory Processing– Highly Simplified
YOUR BRAIN IS THE MOST
COMPLEX CREATION IN THE
UNIVERSE
It contains over 10 trillion living
cells (10,000,000,000,000 )
Gestalt & Logic Models of Learning:
Initial Right Brain - Left Brain Model:
Right Hemisphere (Cortex) Brain – Gestalt
 Left Hemiphere (Cortex) Brain – Logic
 Processing largely done in the Cortex

Current Right Brain - Left Brain Model:
 Logic Lead Functions – Usually Left Hemisphere
 Gestalt Lead Function – Usually Right Hemisphere
 Cortical Lead Functions only Consciously Initiate
a chain of processing that then includes other subconscious Cortical, Limbic & Brainstem areas
Cortical Lead Function = Cortical Column,
now understood to represent Default States
widely distributed through many levels.
Cortical
Column
Six Layers of
the Cerebral
Cortex
Interneuron
Pyramidal Neurons
Axons entering
White Matter
GESTALT & LOGIC TOWER ANALOGY
LOGIC TOWER
GESTALT TOWER
Accountant
Architect
Pictures
Equations
E = mc 2
Telephone Exchange
Lobby
Corpus Callosum
Central Processing Unit
in Basement
Subconscious Processing Modules
Lobby
Brain Integration & the Corpus Callosum
Frontal Lobes
Interhemispheric
Commissural Fibres
Corpus
Callosum
Left
Hemisphere
Right
Hemisphere
Occipital Lobes
Loss of Corpus Callosum Flow = Loss of Brain Integration!
Even Gifted Children (& Adults) can have Problems.
Learning is a Widely Distributed System
 Initial sensory processing is Subconscious & Subcortical
 Later sensory processing is Subconscious & Cortical
 Subconscious Cortical processing is distributed over
each primary sensory cortex
 Components of each sensation are processed in different
parts of the each sensory cortex at different speeds
 Integration of these different Subcortical & Cortical
processes results in conscious sensory perception
 Each conscious sensory perception must then be
integrated with all other perceptions
 Only then can you begin higher level thinking
Brain Integration is Essential
for Learning
Brain Integration is:
 Maintaining Precise Synchrony and Timing of
all Brain Functions at all levels needed to
effectively process Information and make
effective, timely decisions
 Brain is Time-Bound – Loss of synchrony or
timing of Neural Flows in any component
of a function can disrupt this function!
Loss of Brain Integration:
As Thinking results from precise Integration
of Neural Flows required for each Function
Loss of Timing = Loss of Brain Integration
Loss of Brain Integration = Loss of Specific
Mental Function
But what would cause this Loss of Timing
leading to Loss of Brain Integration & therefore
loss of Mental Functions?
Stress = Activation of Survival Emotions!
Brain Iintegration is a Continuum
not You have it or You don‘t
DisStressed
Acutely
Stressed
Significantly
Stressed
Stressed Range:
Survival Emotions
Mildly
Stressed
Functional Problem
Solving
In the
Zone
Personal Range:
Where You Operate most of the Time!
Strongly Activated!
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
Environmental Factors (often other people) & your response
to them determine where you are on this Continuum at any point
in time.
A Primary Factor determing where you are on this spectrum at
any point in time is the activation of strong Survival Emotions,
as these inhibit Frontal Lobe Function.
How Do You Know Where You Are on
the BI Continuum?
By using direct Muscle Biofeedback you can know if you have
more than 50% or Less than 50% Access to Neural Flow across
the Corpus Callosum.
DisStressed
10%
0%
Acutely
Stressed
Significantly
Stressed
Mildly
Stressed
30%
25%
In the
Functional
Problem
Solving- -Solving
Problem
Solving Zone
70%
50%
95%
75%
100%
The Corpus Callosum is the largest Integrative Pathway in the
Brain consisting of between 200 to 800 million Interhemispheric
fibers connecting the Right Hemisphere & the Left Hemisphere.
Loss of synchronized neural flows across the Corpus Callosum
is the basis of Loss of Brain Integration.
Glial Cells or Glia

Nervous System only has 2-Types of cells:

Neurons & Glial Cells

Neurons were believed to be the ONLY
mechanism of Neurotransmission!

Glial Cell thought to play only supportive
role of neuron function in the brain

It is now known that they play a major role
in controlling Neurotransmission!
Schematic & Types of Glial Cells. Note Astrocytes both hold neurons and blood vessels
in place and provide structural connections to the Pia matter and Ependymal cells.
While the Ependymal Cells form the surface of the Ventricles, there are specialised
Ependymal Cells called Tanycytes that anchor the Ependymal cells into the brain structure.
Astrocyte Endfeet: Form the Blood-Brain Barrier by physically coating Brain
Capillaries & inducing Tight-Gap Junctions in the Endothelial Cells of the Capillaries.
These tight-gap junctions and layer of Astrocyte endfeet prevent most molecules
from entering the brain, hence the name the Blood-Brain barrier.
New Roles of Glial Cells:
• Astrocytes control the synaptic function, not neurons!
• Neurons are the mechanism of neurotransmission,
• Like a telephone handset, its cables & telephone
lines are the mechanism of a telephone conversation!
• If you cut the cable or lines – End of conversation!
• However, who is intelligent it is not the telephone,
but rather the person speaking into the telephone!!!
• Astrocytes are whose speaking into the neurons!
• So there is a whole other layer of neural control
unsuspected only 5 years ago!
Fibrous Astrocyte. Note how in contrast to Proto-plasmic
Astrocytes, the Fibrous Astrocytes do not have many Endfeet,
but rather many thin fibres extending from the cell body.
These thin extensions are often inter-twined between the Myelin
sheaths of highly myelinated axons in the White Matter Tracks. Rapid
or repeated firing of the Protoplasmic Astrocytes fires the
Fibrous Astrocytes who release glutamate onto the Oligodendrocytes
stimulating them to make thicker myelin – Practice makes you Faster!
Sensory Integration:
 Occurs within a particular sense & between separate senses.
 Processing of Individual Senses occurs not in one brain area,
but rather in a number of areas within each sensory cortex,
 And relies to a greater or lesser degree upon processing at
the subcortical brainstem and limbic levels.
 With the exception of Sight, all Senses undergo considerable
processing in lower brain areas (e.g. brainstem) before
entering the primary sensory cortices for final processing:
 Final result of multi-level processing is a conscious perception
of each original sensory input.
Sensory Integration:
The Vestibular – Cerebellar Connection.
 Sensory Integration is dependent upon the combined input
of two Primary Brainstem Systems:
 The Vestibular System providing the position of the head in
space via orientation to the universal force of Gravity.
 And the Proprioceptive System of the Cerebellum which
provides the position of each body part relative to the
known position of the Head in Space.
 The Cerebellum is the only structure in the brain that receives
both direct Vestibular & Proprioceptive input, and thus the
great Integrator of these primary sensory systems!
The Foundation of Sensory Processing is the
Vestibular – Cerebellar Proprioceptive Systems.
 Only when these two primary systems are integrated can
higher level Cortical sensory processing begin to develop
an integrated Conscious Perception of sensory input!
 However, there has been a Paradigm Shift with regard to
how Cortical Sensory processing occurs that adds another
level of integration over-looked until recently, and provided
an explanation for various phenomena, .e.g. Synesthesia.
 The Discovery of Multi-Sensory Neurons in the Superior
Colliculi and the Primary Sensory Cortices has provided
both another level of Sensory Integration and a mechanism
that underlies difficult sensory processing problems.
The Old View of Sensory Processing:
 Light entering the eyes activates Rods and Cones of the
Retina, with these signals carried to the Lateral Geniculate
Nucleus via the Optic Nerve.
 From Lateral Geniculate Nucleus - Optic radiations divide
into Magnocellular (m-pathways) & Pavrocellular (p-pathways).
 m-pathways transmit “Where” information – from Rods to the
Extra-striate Cortex & p-pathways transmit “What” information
from Cones to Striate Cortex.
 In Primary Visual Areas (V1 & V2 for the p-pathways & V3, V4, V5,
MT/V5 for m-pathways) multi-step integration of all components
results in the emergence of our conscious visual perception.
The Old View of Sensory Processing:
 Or, sound waves enter Ear & mechanically transmitted from
tympanum to oval window to activate the Spiral Organ generate
nerve impulses.
 Considerable processing of “Where” pathways within Inferior
Colliculi generates an Audiotopic map of sound in space.
 From Spiral Organ of Cochlea through several layers of processing at several levels within the brainstem to Inferior Colliculi.
 From Inferior Colliculi to Medial Geniculate Nucleus – on to
the Primary Auditory Cortices BA 41 & 42.
The Old View of Sensory Processing:
 The “What” pathways end in series of overlapping Tonotopic
maps for frequency discrimination in Primary Cortex.
 “Where” pathways ending in series of Tonotopic and Audiotopic
maps for loudness and location of the sound in space in ParaAuditory Cortex.
 Individual Tonotopic and Audiotopic Maps must be integrated
to create our conscious perception of auditory experience.
 Then each individual Sense Perception (e.g. Vision , Hearing, etc.)
must be integrated first within each area, and then again with the
other Senses to form our multi-sensorial Conscious Perception
of our Sensory World.
New Model of Sensory Processing:
Role of Multi-Sensory Neurons.
 Light entering eyes not only activates Primary Visual Cortex,
but also neurons in the Primary Auditory Cortex, the Primary
Somatosensory Cortex, the Primary Gustatory Cortex, & the
Primary Olfactory Cortex.
 Via these Mutli-Sensory Neurons, each Primary Sensory Cortex
is stimulated by every type of Sensory Input, beginning their
integration long before any conscious perception.
 When these Multi-Sensory inputs are integrated, they initiate
and sustain integration of the two-linked senses enhancing
the integration of the final conscious sensory perception.
 When these initial Multi-Sensory inputs are de-synchronized,
input from one sense can then de-synchronize another sense.
New Model of Sensory Processing:
Role of Multi-Sensory Neurons.
 This results in poor integration at the lowest level of input,
and can thus cause one sense to de-synchronize higher levels
of processing of another sense creating problems in the
conscious perception of the second sense.
 A Central Auditory Processing Problem (CAPP) results from
poor integration of auditory inputs creating poor auditory
comprehension & is now becoming widely acknowledged as a
major sensory integration problem.
 Not yet understood, this is a Multi-Sensory Neuron problem
& can be eliminated by integrating Multi-Sensory Neurons of
two Primary Sensory Cortices. This is role of using 2-Senses
at the same time – e.g. Paul & Eve’s CDs.
Case Study: Charles Krebs.
 Had always had great difficulty with auditory perception although
his hearing tested normal – he would listen carefully, but usually
forget most of what was said.
 However he compensated successfully with the gift of a nearphotographic memory.
 Charles had extreme difficulty learning German even after living
in Germany for 5 years! He just could not accurately hear what
was said & you can only say what you can hear!
Case Study: Charles Krebs.
 When challenged to repeat a famous German tongue-twister –
“Fischer Fritz fischt frische Fische” – he could only hear Fritz
and the other words were totally unknown to him.
 One treatment for CAPP using Auditory Multi-Sensory Neuron
integration and he has learned more German in 3-months of
intermittent travel to Germany than in 5 years he previously
lived in Germany, now he learns new German words easily!
Role of Fronto-Cerebellar Loops in Visualization:
 In Conscious Mental processing, the Cortex initiates
sensory processing and thinking about the sensory
data received.
 Then the Cerebellum sustains & re-synchronizes
the function initiated by the Cortex!
 For example, BA 46 – Lateral Frontal Cortex initiates
construction of a visual image in your head.
 At the same time the cortex sends a timing signal
to cerebellum where the signal is fractally smoothed,
and returned to cortex to “refresh” the image!
Role of Fronto-Cerebellar Loops in Visualization:
 When the “refresh rate” is high enough the image
in your mind’s eye is stable & can be easily accessed,
then Spelling and Times Tables are learned easily!
 However, if the “refresh rate” is too slow the image
is unstable and is often lost or re-arranged before
it can be accessed & thus is useless for memory!
 If the fractal smoothing is sufficiently de-synchronized,
the image initiated by the cortical processing is actually
disrupted by the returning timing signal – then you do
not construct any image – you cannot see anything
in your mind’s eye – these are the totally phonetic
spellers!
I Thank You for your Attention
& I hope you found this information
of Interest.
Charles T. Krebs, PhD
The Lydian Center for Innovative Medicine
777 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, MA
www.lydiancenter.com