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What’s New in Understanding of the Brain? A Synopsis. Presented by Charles T. Krebs, PhD The Lydian Center for Innovative Medicine 777 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, MA www.lydiancenter.com What is Learning? Learning can be defined as the ability to acquire knowledge or a skill through instruction or experience, or simply modification of behaviour in response to experience. Memory can be defined as the capacity of storing, retrieving and acting upon knowledge, or the ability to recall thoughts, thus our learning is dependent upon our memory. Learning is both Conscious and Subsconcious What is 4 + 4 = ? Answer = 8 How did you do this? Where in your Brain did you do this? Little of Thinking is Conscious! 80% of Brain Function is totally Subconscious with Consciousness only appearing at the Highest Levels of Processing! Conscious Perception only begins at Cortical Level 3: Sensory Processing Component 1 Sensory Receptor Receptor Initial CNS Sensory Processing Brainstem nuclei Brainstem Subconscious Long-term Memories Cortical Association Areas Sight Assoc. Area Sensory Processing Component 2 Sensory Processing Component 3 RAS Cerebellum Cortical Level 1 Thalamic Relay Cortical Level 1 Lim bic Subcon scious Cortical Level 1 Amygdala Coarse-Grained Sensory experience Brainstem Subconscious Cortical Level 2 Cortical Level 2 Smell Assoc. Area Taste Assoc. Area Medial Temporal Lobe Limbic Subconscious Retrieval from Memory Cortical Level 3 Cortical Level 2 Cortical Level 4 Cortical Level 2 Cortical Level 3 Cortical Level 2 Cortical Level 2 Cortical Processing Subconscious Sound Assoc. Area Touch Assoc. Area Conscious Cortical Perception Hippocampus (Now Time Short-term Memory) Conscious Limbic Now Time Awareness Working Memory (Dorsolateral Frontal Cortex) Conscious Cortical Thinking about Sensory Experience Schematic Neural Flow of Sensory Processing– Highly Simplified YOUR BRAIN IS THE MOST COMPLEX CREATION IN THE UNIVERSE It contains over 10 trillion living cells (10,000,000,000,000 ) Gestalt & Logic Models of Learning: Initial Right Brain - Left Brain Model: Right Hemisphere (Cortex) Brain – Gestalt Left Hemiphere (Cortex) Brain – Logic Processing largely done in the Cortex Current Right Brain - Left Brain Model: Logic Lead Functions – Usually Left Hemisphere Gestalt Lead Function – Usually Right Hemisphere Cortical Lead Functions only Consciously Initiate a chain of processing that then includes other subconscious Cortical, Limbic & Brainstem areas Cortical Lead Function = Cortical Column, now understood to represent Default States widely distributed through many levels. Cortical Column Six Layers of the Cerebral Cortex Interneuron Pyramidal Neurons Axons entering White Matter GESTALT & LOGIC TOWER ANALOGY LOGIC TOWER GESTALT TOWER Accountant Architect Pictures Equations E = mc 2 Telephone Exchange Lobby Corpus Callosum Central Processing Unit in Basement Subconscious Processing Modules Lobby Brain Integration & the Corpus Callosum Frontal Lobes Interhemispheric Commissural Fibres Corpus Callosum Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere Occipital Lobes Loss of Corpus Callosum Flow = Loss of Brain Integration! Even Gifted Children (& Adults) can have Problems. Learning is a Widely Distributed System Initial sensory processing is Subconscious & Subcortical Later sensory processing is Subconscious & Cortical Subconscious Cortical processing is distributed over each primary sensory cortex Components of each sensation are processed in different parts of the each sensory cortex at different speeds Integration of these different Subcortical & Cortical processes results in conscious sensory perception Each conscious sensory perception must then be integrated with all other perceptions Only then can you begin higher level thinking Brain Integration is Essential for Learning Brain Integration is: Maintaining Precise Synchrony and Timing of all Brain Functions at all levels needed to effectively process Information and make effective, timely decisions Brain is Time-Bound – Loss of synchrony or timing of Neural Flows in any component of a function can disrupt this function! Loss of Brain Integration: As Thinking results from precise Integration of Neural Flows required for each Function Loss of Timing = Loss of Brain Integration Loss of Brain Integration = Loss of Specific Mental Function But what would cause this Loss of Timing leading to Loss of Brain Integration & therefore loss of Mental Functions? Stress = Activation of Survival Emotions! Brain Iintegration is a Continuum not You have it or You don‘t DisStressed Acutely Stressed Significantly Stressed Stressed Range: Survival Emotions Mildly Stressed Functional Problem Solving In the Zone Personal Range: Where You Operate most of the Time! Strongly Activated! 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% Environmental Factors (often other people) & your response to them determine where you are on this Continuum at any point in time. A Primary Factor determing where you are on this spectrum at any point in time is the activation of strong Survival Emotions, as these inhibit Frontal Lobe Function. How Do You Know Where You Are on the BI Continuum? By using direct Muscle Biofeedback you can know if you have more than 50% or Less than 50% Access to Neural Flow across the Corpus Callosum. DisStressed 10% 0% Acutely Stressed Significantly Stressed Mildly Stressed 30% 25% In the Functional Problem Solving- -Solving Problem Solving Zone 70% 50% 95% 75% 100% The Corpus Callosum is the largest Integrative Pathway in the Brain consisting of between 200 to 800 million Interhemispheric fibers connecting the Right Hemisphere & the Left Hemisphere. Loss of synchronized neural flows across the Corpus Callosum is the basis of Loss of Brain Integration. Glial Cells or Glia Nervous System only has 2-Types of cells: Neurons & Glial Cells Neurons were believed to be the ONLY mechanism of Neurotransmission! Glial Cell thought to play only supportive role of neuron function in the brain It is now known that they play a major role in controlling Neurotransmission! Schematic & Types of Glial Cells. Note Astrocytes both hold neurons and blood vessels in place and provide structural connections to the Pia matter and Ependymal cells. While the Ependymal Cells form the surface of the Ventricles, there are specialised Ependymal Cells called Tanycytes that anchor the Ependymal cells into the brain structure. Astrocyte Endfeet: Form the Blood-Brain Barrier by physically coating Brain Capillaries & inducing Tight-Gap Junctions in the Endothelial Cells of the Capillaries. These tight-gap junctions and layer of Astrocyte endfeet prevent most molecules from entering the brain, hence the name the Blood-Brain barrier. New Roles of Glial Cells: • Astrocytes control the synaptic function, not neurons! • Neurons are the mechanism of neurotransmission, • Like a telephone handset, its cables & telephone lines are the mechanism of a telephone conversation! • If you cut the cable or lines – End of conversation! • However, who is intelligent it is not the telephone, but rather the person speaking into the telephone!!! • Astrocytes are whose speaking into the neurons! • So there is a whole other layer of neural control unsuspected only 5 years ago! Fibrous Astrocyte. Note how in contrast to Proto-plasmic Astrocytes, the Fibrous Astrocytes do not have many Endfeet, but rather many thin fibres extending from the cell body. These thin extensions are often inter-twined between the Myelin sheaths of highly myelinated axons in the White Matter Tracks. Rapid or repeated firing of the Protoplasmic Astrocytes fires the Fibrous Astrocytes who release glutamate onto the Oligodendrocytes stimulating them to make thicker myelin – Practice makes you Faster! Sensory Integration: Occurs within a particular sense & between separate senses. Processing of Individual Senses occurs not in one brain area, but rather in a number of areas within each sensory cortex, And relies to a greater or lesser degree upon processing at the subcortical brainstem and limbic levels. With the exception of Sight, all Senses undergo considerable processing in lower brain areas (e.g. brainstem) before entering the primary sensory cortices for final processing: Final result of multi-level processing is a conscious perception of each original sensory input. Sensory Integration: The Vestibular – Cerebellar Connection. Sensory Integration is dependent upon the combined input of two Primary Brainstem Systems: The Vestibular System providing the position of the head in space via orientation to the universal force of Gravity. And the Proprioceptive System of the Cerebellum which provides the position of each body part relative to the known position of the Head in Space. The Cerebellum is the only structure in the brain that receives both direct Vestibular & Proprioceptive input, and thus the great Integrator of these primary sensory systems! The Foundation of Sensory Processing is the Vestibular – Cerebellar Proprioceptive Systems. Only when these two primary systems are integrated can higher level Cortical sensory processing begin to develop an integrated Conscious Perception of sensory input! However, there has been a Paradigm Shift with regard to how Cortical Sensory processing occurs that adds another level of integration over-looked until recently, and provided an explanation for various phenomena, .e.g. Synesthesia. The Discovery of Multi-Sensory Neurons in the Superior Colliculi and the Primary Sensory Cortices has provided both another level of Sensory Integration and a mechanism that underlies difficult sensory processing problems. The Old View of Sensory Processing: Light entering the eyes activates Rods and Cones of the Retina, with these signals carried to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus via the Optic Nerve. From Lateral Geniculate Nucleus - Optic radiations divide into Magnocellular (m-pathways) & Pavrocellular (p-pathways). m-pathways transmit “Where” information – from Rods to the Extra-striate Cortex & p-pathways transmit “What” information from Cones to Striate Cortex. In Primary Visual Areas (V1 & V2 for the p-pathways & V3, V4, V5, MT/V5 for m-pathways) multi-step integration of all components results in the emergence of our conscious visual perception. The Old View of Sensory Processing: Or, sound waves enter Ear & mechanically transmitted from tympanum to oval window to activate the Spiral Organ generate nerve impulses. Considerable processing of “Where” pathways within Inferior Colliculi generates an Audiotopic map of sound in space. From Spiral Organ of Cochlea through several layers of processing at several levels within the brainstem to Inferior Colliculi. From Inferior Colliculi to Medial Geniculate Nucleus – on to the Primary Auditory Cortices BA 41 & 42. The Old View of Sensory Processing: The “What” pathways end in series of overlapping Tonotopic maps for frequency discrimination in Primary Cortex. “Where” pathways ending in series of Tonotopic and Audiotopic maps for loudness and location of the sound in space in ParaAuditory Cortex. Individual Tonotopic and Audiotopic Maps must be integrated to create our conscious perception of auditory experience. Then each individual Sense Perception (e.g. Vision , Hearing, etc.) must be integrated first within each area, and then again with the other Senses to form our multi-sensorial Conscious Perception of our Sensory World. New Model of Sensory Processing: Role of Multi-Sensory Neurons. Light entering eyes not only activates Primary Visual Cortex, but also neurons in the Primary Auditory Cortex, the Primary Somatosensory Cortex, the Primary Gustatory Cortex, & the Primary Olfactory Cortex. Via these Mutli-Sensory Neurons, each Primary Sensory Cortex is stimulated by every type of Sensory Input, beginning their integration long before any conscious perception. When these Multi-Sensory inputs are integrated, they initiate and sustain integration of the two-linked senses enhancing the integration of the final conscious sensory perception. When these initial Multi-Sensory inputs are de-synchronized, input from one sense can then de-synchronize another sense. New Model of Sensory Processing: Role of Multi-Sensory Neurons. This results in poor integration at the lowest level of input, and can thus cause one sense to de-synchronize higher levels of processing of another sense creating problems in the conscious perception of the second sense. A Central Auditory Processing Problem (CAPP) results from poor integration of auditory inputs creating poor auditory comprehension & is now becoming widely acknowledged as a major sensory integration problem. Not yet understood, this is a Multi-Sensory Neuron problem & can be eliminated by integrating Multi-Sensory Neurons of two Primary Sensory Cortices. This is role of using 2-Senses at the same time – e.g. Paul & Eve’s CDs. Case Study: Charles Krebs. Had always had great difficulty with auditory perception although his hearing tested normal – he would listen carefully, but usually forget most of what was said. However he compensated successfully with the gift of a nearphotographic memory. Charles had extreme difficulty learning German even after living in Germany for 5 years! He just could not accurately hear what was said & you can only say what you can hear! Case Study: Charles Krebs. When challenged to repeat a famous German tongue-twister – “Fischer Fritz fischt frische Fische” – he could only hear Fritz and the other words were totally unknown to him. One treatment for CAPP using Auditory Multi-Sensory Neuron integration and he has learned more German in 3-months of intermittent travel to Germany than in 5 years he previously lived in Germany, now he learns new German words easily! Role of Fronto-Cerebellar Loops in Visualization: In Conscious Mental processing, the Cortex initiates sensory processing and thinking about the sensory data received. Then the Cerebellum sustains & re-synchronizes the function initiated by the Cortex! For example, BA 46 – Lateral Frontal Cortex initiates construction of a visual image in your head. At the same time the cortex sends a timing signal to cerebellum where the signal is fractally smoothed, and returned to cortex to “refresh” the image! Role of Fronto-Cerebellar Loops in Visualization: When the “refresh rate” is high enough the image in your mind’s eye is stable & can be easily accessed, then Spelling and Times Tables are learned easily! However, if the “refresh rate” is too slow the image is unstable and is often lost or re-arranged before it can be accessed & thus is useless for memory! If the fractal smoothing is sufficiently de-synchronized, the image initiated by the cortical processing is actually disrupted by the returning timing signal – then you do not construct any image – you cannot see anything in your mind’s eye – these are the totally phonetic spellers! I Thank You for your Attention & I hope you found this information of Interest. Charles T. Krebs, PhD The Lydian Center for Innovative Medicine 777 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, MA www.lydiancenter.com