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Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Contents History and Approaches ................................................................................................................................ 2 History of Psychology ................................................................................................................................ 2 Psychological Perspectives........................................................................................................................ 3 Methods ........................................................................................................................................................ 3 Research Methods .................................................................................................................................... 3 Terminology .............................................................................................................................................. 4 Hypotheses and Variables..................................................................................................................... 4 Validity and Reliability........................................................................................................................... 4 Sampling................................................................................................................................................ 4 Experimental Method ........................................................................................................................... 4 Statistics .................................................................................................................................................... 4 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................................. 4 APA Ethical Guidelines .............................................................................................................................. 4 Animal Research ................................................................................................................................... 4 Human Research ................................................................................................................................... 5 Biological Bases of Behavior ......................................................................................................................... 5 Neuroanatomy .......................................................................................................................................... 5 How a Neuron “Fires” ............................................................................................................................... 5 Neurotransmitters .................................................................................................................................... 5 Afferent/Sensory Neurons, Efferent/Motor Neurons, and Interneurons ................................................ 6 The Nervous System ................................................................................................................................. 6 The Central Nervous System ................................................................................................................. 6 The Peripheral Nervous System ............................................................................................................ 6 Reflexes ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 Hot/Cold Reflex ..................................................................................................................................... 7 The Brain ....................................................................................................................................................... 7 Parts of the Brain ...................................................................................................................................... 7 Ways of Studying the Brain ....................................................................................................................... 9 Scans ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 Accidents ............................................................................................................................................. 10 Lesions................................................................................................................................................. 10 1 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Endocrine System.................................................................................................................................... 10 Genetics .................................................................................................................................................. 10 Twins ................................................................................................................................................... 10 Chromosomal Abnormalities .............................................................................................................. 10 Sensation and Perception ........................................................................................................................... 11 Vision....................................................................................................................................................... 11 Vision Theories .................................................................................................................................... 12 Hearing .................................................................................................................................................... 12 Pitch Theories...................................................................................................................................... 13 Deafness .............................................................................................................................................. 13 Touch (Tactile)......................................................................................................................................... 13 Taste ........................................................................................................................................................ 14 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide History and Approaches History of Psychology 1. Prehistoric Psych a. From ancient time b. Things like trephination to get rid of the “evil spirits” c. Key people – Plato and Democritus – relationship between thought and behavior 2. Wave 1 – Introspection a. 1879 – beginning of psychology b. Key people i. Wilhelm Wundt – first psych lab @ Leipzig, Germany. 1. Introspection was big to him 2. Structuralism – mind operated by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations ii. William James – The Principles of Psychology – first psych textbook 3. Wave 2 – Gestalt a. At same time as Wundt and James, Gestalt psych b. Key people i. Max Wertheimer 1. Ideology – divide human thought and behavior into discrete structures 2 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide c. Examine total experience b/c experience is more than perception d. BIG IDEA: Wertheimer – whole greater than sum of parts 4. Wave 3 – Psychoanalysis a. Freud – not science – hard to prove b. Focus on unconscious c. Concepts of countering repression – free association, defense mechanisms, etc. 5. Wave 4 – Behaviorism a. Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning (dogs) b. BF Skinner – operant conditioning c. John Watson – for psych to be science, must be observable (not things like unconscious mind) d. Behaviorists only look at behavior and its causes. e. Ideas of reinforcement and punishment 6. Wave 5 – Eclectic a. Draw from multiple PERSPECTIVES Psychological Perspectives 1. Humanism a. Unconditional positive regard b. Acceptance of all 2. Psychoanalytic a. Based on Freudian ideas of repression, unconscious mind, etc. 3. Biopsychology/Neuroscience a. Cognition and reactions are b/c of genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters 4. Evolutionary/Darwinian a. Human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection b. Traits advantageous for survival will be selected and therefore be more dominant i. Example: Extroversion. Extroverts are outgoing and can make friends/allies faster, thereby allowing them to survive longer 5. Cognitive Perspective a. Thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events. b. Important people i. Piaget and theory of developmental psychology c. Example: extroverted people see the way in a perspective that being extroverted makes the most sense. 6. Sociocultural a. Our social status and cultural background influences the way we act Methods Research Methods Hindsight bias – the “I knew it!” moment Applied research – testing etc. that has real-world application 3 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Basic research – things that do not have practical applications (like what is thedefinition of intelligence) Terminology Hypotheses and Variables Hypothesis – relationship between two variables Dependent is affected by the independent variable (IV is the one that is changes) Theory – explain a phenomenon and allows researchers to generate hypothesis Operational definitions – what something means in your experiment (what will you call _____? (maybe intelligence) Validity and Reliability Validity – measures what it is supposed to measure; accuracy Reliability – ability to be replicated; consistency Sampling Best to use a random sample to eliminate confounding variables Confounding variables – differences between experimental and control conditions Experimental Method Lab experiments vs. field experiments Best practice: double-blind procedures – neither the subject nor the psychologist knows who received the placebo and who received the “cure” o Prevents Hawthorne effect – treating people who received placebo different from the other subjects Positive vs. Negative correlation Data collection o Surveys o Naturalistic Observation o Case Study Statistics Descriptive Statistics Know what a Z-score is APA Ethical Guidelines Most studies go through a review board to ensure they are ethical Animal Research Must have clear scientific purpose Must answer a specific scientific question Animals must be suited to the task Animals must be treated humanely Animals must be legally acquired Procedures must induce least amount of suffering 4 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Human Research No coercion Informed consent Anonymity and confidentiality Risks Debriefing Biological Bases of Behavior Neuroanatomy Dendrites – root-like parts of the cell that stretch from the cell body. Cell body (soma) – contains nucleus and other parts of cell Axon – wire-like structure ending in terminal buttons that extends from cell body Myelin sheath – a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses Terminal buttons – the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters – chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate Synapse – space between neurons How a Neuron “Fires” In resting state – slightly negative charge Cell membrane of the neuron is selectively permeable Reaction forms when terminal buttons of neuron A are stimulated and release neurotransmitters into the synapse. o Neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites of neuron B dendrites o When enough neurotransmitters are received that the THRESHOLD is reached, neuron B becomes permeable and negatively charged on the outside. o Change in charge causes ACTION POTENTIAL. If charge is strong enough, repeat the process. All-or-none principle – Neuron fires or does not. There is no halfway. Impulse is the same every time. Neurotransmitters Chemicals that travel in the synaptic gaps. Two types: excitatory and inhibitory o Excitatory – cause the neuron to fire o Inhibitory – cause the neuron to NOT fire Important Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine Dopamine Endorphins Serotonon Function Problems With too Much/Little Motor Movement Lack is associated with Alzheimer’s Motor Movement and Lack – Parkinson’s Alertness Excess – schizophrenia Pain Control Involved in addictions Mood Control Lack – clinical depression 5 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Afferent/Sensory Neurons, Efferent/Motor Neurons, and Interneurons Afferent/Sensory Neurons – info from senses to brain o Afferent takes info in At the brain Efferent/Motor Neurons – take info from brain to rest of body o Efferent carries info that Exits the brain SAME o Sensory = Afferent o Motor = Efferent Interneurons – when info reaches the spinal cord, interneurons take the messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or to efferent neurons The Nervous System Two categories: o Central nervous system o Peripheral nervous system The Central Nervous System Consists of brain and spinal cord (all the nerves in the bone) Spinal cord runs through the center of the spine. Transmits info from body to rest of brain. The Peripheral Nervous System All the other nerves – the ones not encased in bone. Two categories – somatic and autonomic 6 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Somatic Nervous System Controls voluntary muscle movement Motor cortex send impulses to brain, which control movement muscles Autonomic Nervous System Controls automatic functions – heartbeat, breathing, etc. Control stress response – fight or flight Two categories – sympathetic and parasympathetic Sympathetic Nervous System Arouses the body, in response to stress Carries messages to muscles, glands, etc. that direct stress response Accelerate: HR, BP, breathing; Slow: Digestion Parasympathetic Nervous System Calms body after stress response Slows body down. It’s the brake of the autonomic nervous system. Accelerate: Digestion; Slow: HR, BP, breathing Reflexes Some reactions occur when impulses reach the spinal cord (like when you go to the doctor and he taps your knee) Brain does not reach the brain until AFTER the reflex has occurred Hot/Cold Reflex If an object has an extreme temperature, our spine sends a message that jerks us away from the object. Keeps us from harming ourselves. The Brain Parts of the Brain Parts of the Brain Part/Region Brainstem Medulla Oblongata Location Function Where spinal cord enters Contains: skull Medulla oblongata Reticular formation Thalamus (@ top) Brainstem Reticular formation Brainstem 7 Controls heartbeat and breathing Without it, no purpose in life Finger-shaped network of neurons that extends from spinal cord to thalamus Get Psyched Thalamus Pons Cerebellum The Limbic System Amygdala Hypothalamus Hippocampus Cerebral cortex Right hemisphere Left hemisphere Temporal lobes AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Filters and relays info Helps control arousal Atop the brainstem Egg-shaped All senses EXCEPT smell Routes senses to correct higher brain regions Essentially, sorts the mail If the medulla was a router, the higher brain regions would be computers Hindbrain Involved in sleep and dreaming Extends from rear of “little brain” brainstem Coordinates voluntary movement Mid-brain Neural system Contains: Amygdala Hypothalamus Hippocampus Limbic system Influences aggression and fear Below thalamus in Limbic Influence hunger system Regulate thirst, body temp. and sex behavior Contains “pleasure centers” The Limbic System Processes and creates longlasting memories IF A HIPPO CAME ONTO CAMPUS, YOU WOULD REMEMBER IT Covers surface of brain Ultimate control and infoprocessing center Lateralized (on both hemispheres) Contains TOPF: Temporal Occipital Parietal Frontal AND glial cells Right side Controls artistic, functions and left side of body Left side Controls logic and right side of body Near the ears Controls comprehension of 8 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Occipital lobes Back of the head Parietal lobes Frontal lobes Top of head Front of head Sensory cortex Front of parietal lobe Motor cortex Back of frontal lobe Glial cells Cerebral cortex Prefrontal cortex Frontal Lobe Wernicke’s area LEFT parietal lobe Broca’s area LEFT frontal lobe Association areas Cerebral Cortex Corpus callosum Between two hemispheres auditory stimuli Left controls right, vice versa Controls visual stimuli Left controls right, vice versa Contains sensory cortex Speaking and muscle movements Contains motor cortex Controls reception of senses (including smell) More sensitive the region, more of cortex dedicated to it Controls movement of muscles and glands Lateralized (opposite controls opposite) Guide neural connections Provide nutrients and myelin THE CLEAN UP CREW Controls prioritization, decision making, social skills Controls language reception and comprehension Controls language expression Not related to motor or sensory Higher-level thinking (learning, etc) VERY IMPORTANT Band of fibers connecting hemispheres Ways of Studying the Brain Scans MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) – body put in strong magnetic field. Can show soft tissue. BRAIN STRUCTURE Electroencephalogram (EEG) – recording of electrical currents across brain surface. BRAIN ACTIVITY 9 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide CT scan (computed tomography) – x-ray of brain tissue. BRAIN STRUCTURE/ THE BLUEPRINT OF THE BRAIN PET scan (positron emission tomography) – patient drinks radioactive glucose and scan shows brain activity as brain performs certain tasks. Like a power meter BRAIN ACTIVITY. fMRI – combines elements of MRI and PET scans. Shows details of brain structure with information about blood flow of the brain. Accidents Things like Phineas Gage and his railway accident Lesions Removal/destruction of some part of the brain. Used in things like tumors that cannot be removed any other way. Early example: frontal lobotomy Endocrine System Secretes hormones o Chemical messengers like neurotransmitters Endocrine system much slower. Adrenal gland – o Release epinephrine (adrenaline)/norepinephrine (nonadrenaline) Pituitary gland – o Pea-sized structure in base of brain o Controls release of hormones from other glands o THE MASTER GLAND Ovaries and testes o Produce sex hormones (ovaries for women, testes for men) Estrogen is dominant in females Testosterone is dominant in males o Levels of these hormones explain gender differences Genetics Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. The genetic material in humans is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Genes can be dominant or recessive Twins Genetic influence can make twins incredibly alike. Bouchard study Showed IQ is heavily influenced by genetics, etc. Environment plays some role Chromosomal Abnormalities Gender is determined by 23rd pair of chromosomes o Males – XY o Females – XX 10 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Examples of abnormalities – Trisomy of chromosome pair 21 is Down syndrome (extra chromosome on 21st pair) Sensation and Perception All senses are processed similarly Go through transduction – process by which messages are encoded into neural impulses o All impulses are routed through the thalamus (EXCEPTION – SMELL) Sensation is the process of impulses being received Perception is you realizing/acknowledging that some of those impulses are pertinent to your current situation Sensory adaptation – decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation (you don’t feel your underwear all day) Sensory habituation – attention to certain stimuli is based on how focused we are on them (after reading the last bullet point, you are probably aware of your underwear) Cocktail-party effect – ability to focus on one conversation in a room of many Vision Step One: Gathering light o Light is electromagnetic and is part of that spectrum o Colors are waves that are reflected. A red car absorbs all colors except red, which it reflects o White is a reflection of all colors o Black is the absorption of all colors. o ROY G. BIV Step Two: Within the Eye o All starts when light enters the eye through the cornea. Cornea protects the eye and also helps to focus light o The light then goes to the pupil – it is like a camera shutter (regulates the amount of light that gets into the eye. When you are in a bright place, the pupil contracts to let less light in When you are in the dark, it dilates to allow more light in o The iris is the set of muscles that dilates/contracts the pupil This is the part of your eye that is colored o The light then undergoes accommodation 11 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide This is where the lens focuses the light. The lens is curved and flexible, which helps it to focus light Images that pass through the lens are upside down and inverted. That images projected onto the retina (which is like a screen in the back of your eye. Step Three: Transduction o Two types of cells in the eye – rods and cones Rods: black and white vision. In the periphery of the eye. (That’s why peripheral vision is mostly black and white) Cones: color vision. In the fovea o Rods outnumber cones 20:1 o If enough rods and cones fire, bipolar cells are activated. These cells activate ganglion cells which sends the impulse up the optic nerve to the thalamus. From there it is sent to the occipital lobe’s visual cortex Feature detectors o Hubel and Wiesel discovered that groups of neurons in the visual cortex respond to different types of images o Example: A frog has feature detectors for bugs that help it quickly recognize and catch them. Vision Theories Trichromatic Theory Emphasizes that there are 3 types of cones – red, green, and blue (RGB) Think of this theory as assuming that our eyes are like TV screens – only have RGB pixels Does not explain afterimages or color blindness Opponent-Process Theory Sensory receptors come in pairs o RED/GREEN o YELLOW/BLUE o BLACK/WHITE Explains afterimages o When you stare a red image for a long time, you exhaust the red sensors. When you shift your gaze to something (say, a white wall), the green sensors fire (b/c they are the opponent pair) Also explains colorblindness o Colorblindness comes in pairs usually o Most people are not just green colorblind, they are red-green colorblind. Hearing Sound waves are vibrations in the air. NOT electromagnetic spectrum Amplitude of sound waves – height of the waves (loudness measured in decibels) Frequency if sound waves – length of the waves (pitch measured in hertz) How it works: o Sound waves are collected in outer ear 12 Get Psyched o o o o AP Psychology Exam Study Guide They then travel down the ear canal (auditory canal) and to the eardrum/tympanic membrane. As sound waves hit the eardrum, vibrates. The eardrum is connected to three bones – the hammer, anvil, and stirrup that transmit the vibration to the oval window. The oval window is connected to the cochlea, which vibrates Inside the cochlea is the mucus lines basilar membrane that has hair cells. When these cells vibrate, the organ of Corti converts these vibrations to neural impulses. The auditory nerve send this information to the temporal lobe, via the thalamus Pitch Theories Place Theory Frequency Theory Place Theory Says the hair cells in the cochlea respond to different theories because of where they are PLACED in the cochlea. Frequency Theory Explains high pitches Tones are sensed at the rate by which hair cells fire. The cells fire at different frequencies, which generates different frequencies Deafness Conduction deafness – issue in getting sound to cochlea. Can be fixed with hearing aid, surgery, etc. Nerve (sensorineural) deafness – hair cells in cochlea are damaged. Cannot be fixed (maybe a cochlear implant) Touch (Tactile) Indentations, piercings, changes in temperature trigger touch senses. Nerve endings are denser in some places (like in fingers) than in others (like your elbow) If receptors are stimulated sharply – causes pain Gate-control theory of pain – some pain messages are given higher priority. o High priority messages open the gate, but it stays closed for the low priority ones. o (the gate is just a metaphor) o Endorphins also close the gate. Endogenous morphine… 13 Get Psyched AP Psychology Exam Study Guide Taste (Gustatory) These nerves respond to chemicals that are detected by taste buds on papillae (the bumpy part of your tongue) Five different types of taste 14