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Contents
History and Approaches ................................................................................................................................ 2
History of Psychology ................................................................................................................................ 2
Psychological Perspectives........................................................................................................................ 3
Methods ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
Research Methods .................................................................................................................................... 3
Terminology .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Hypotheses and Variables..................................................................................................................... 4
Validity and Reliability........................................................................................................................... 4
Sampling................................................................................................................................................ 4
Experimental Method ........................................................................................................................... 4
Statistics .................................................................................................................................................... 4
Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................................. 4
APA Ethical Guidelines .............................................................................................................................. 4
Animal Research ................................................................................................................................... 4
Human Research ................................................................................................................................... 5
Biological Bases of Behavior ......................................................................................................................... 5
Neuroanatomy .......................................................................................................................................... 5
How a Neuron “Fires” ............................................................................................................................... 5
Neurotransmitters .................................................................................................................................... 5
Afferent/Sensory Neurons, Efferent/Motor Neurons, and Interneurons ................................................ 6
The Nervous System ................................................................................................................................. 6
The Central Nervous System ................................................................................................................. 6
The Peripheral Nervous System ............................................................................................................ 6
Reflexes ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Hot/Cold Reflex ..................................................................................................................................... 7
The Brain ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Parts of the Brain ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Ways of Studying the Brain ....................................................................................................................... 9
Scans ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
Accidents ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Lesions................................................................................................................................................. 10
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Endocrine System.................................................................................................................................... 10
Genetics .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Twins ................................................................................................................................................... 10
Chromosomal Abnormalities .............................................................................................................. 10
Sensation and Perception ........................................................................................................................... 11
Vision....................................................................................................................................................... 11
Vision Theories .................................................................................................................................... 12
Hearing .................................................................................................................................................... 12
Pitch Theories...................................................................................................................................... 13
Deafness .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Touch (Tactile)......................................................................................................................................... 13
Taste ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
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History and Approaches
History of Psychology
1. Prehistoric Psych
a. From ancient time
b. Things like trephination to get rid of the “evil spirits”
c. Key people – Plato and Democritus – relationship between thought and behavior
2. Wave 1 – Introspection
a. 1879 – beginning of psychology
b. Key people
i. Wilhelm Wundt – first psych lab @ Leipzig, Germany.
1. Introspection was big to him
2. Structuralism – mind operated by combining subjective emotions and
objective sensations
ii. William James – The Principles of Psychology – first psych textbook
3. Wave 2 – Gestalt
a. At same time as Wundt and James, Gestalt psych
b. Key people
i. Max Wertheimer
1. Ideology – divide human thought and behavior into discrete structures
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c. Examine total experience b/c experience is more than perception
d. BIG IDEA: Wertheimer – whole greater than sum of parts
4. Wave 3 – Psychoanalysis
a. Freud – not science – hard to prove
b. Focus on unconscious
c. Concepts of countering repression – free association, defense mechanisms, etc.
5. Wave 4 – Behaviorism
a. Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning (dogs)
b. BF Skinner – operant conditioning
c. John Watson – for psych to be science, must be observable (not things like unconscious
mind)
d. Behaviorists only look at behavior and its causes.
e. Ideas of reinforcement and punishment
6. Wave 5 – Eclectic
a. Draw from multiple PERSPECTIVES
Psychological Perspectives
1. Humanism
a. Unconditional positive regard
b. Acceptance of all
2. Psychoanalytic
a. Based on Freudian ideas of repression, unconscious mind, etc.
3. Biopsychology/Neuroscience
a. Cognition and reactions are b/c of genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters
4. Evolutionary/Darwinian
a. Human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection
b. Traits advantageous for survival will be selected and therefore be more dominant
i. Example: Extroversion. Extroverts are outgoing and can make friends/allies
faster, thereby allowing them to survive longer
5. Cognitive Perspective
a. Thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember
environmental events.
b. Important people
i. Piaget and theory of developmental psychology
c. Example: extroverted people see the way in a perspective that being extroverted makes
the most sense.
6. Sociocultural
a. Our social status and cultural background influences the way we act
Methods
Research Methods
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Hindsight bias – the “I knew it!” moment
Applied research – testing etc. that has real-world application
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Basic research – things that do not have practical applications (like what is thedefinition of
intelligence)
Terminology
Hypotheses and Variables
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Hypothesis – relationship between two variables
Dependent is affected by the independent variable (IV is the one that is changes)
Theory – explain a phenomenon and allows researchers to generate hypothesis
Operational definitions – what something means in your experiment (what will you call _____?
(maybe intelligence)
Validity and Reliability
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Validity – measures what it is supposed to measure; accuracy
Reliability – ability to be replicated; consistency
Sampling
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Best to use a random sample to eliminate confounding variables
Confounding variables – differences between experimental and control conditions
Experimental Method
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Lab experiments vs. field experiments
Best practice: double-blind procedures – neither the subject nor the psychologist knows who
received the placebo and who received the “cure”
o Prevents Hawthorne effect – treating people who received placebo different from the
other subjects
Positive vs. Negative correlation
Data collection
o Surveys
o Naturalistic Observation
o Case Study
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics

Know what a Z-score is
APA Ethical Guidelines
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Most studies go through a review board to ensure they are ethical
Animal Research
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Must have clear scientific purpose
Must answer a specific scientific question
Animals must be suited to the task
Animals must be treated humanely
Animals must be legally acquired
Procedures must induce least amount of suffering
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Human Research
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No coercion
Informed consent
Anonymity and confidentiality
Risks
Debriefing
Biological Bases of Behavior
Neuroanatomy
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Dendrites – root-like parts of the cell that stretch from the cell body.
Cell body (soma) – contains nucleus and other parts of cell
Axon – wire-like structure ending in terminal buttons that extends from cell body
Myelin sheath – a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses
Terminal buttons – the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters – chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to
communicate
Synapse – space between neurons
How a Neuron “Fires”
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In resting state – slightly negative charge
Cell membrane of the neuron is selectively permeable
Reaction forms when terminal buttons of neuron A are stimulated and release
neurotransmitters into the synapse.
o Neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites of neuron B dendrites
o When enough neurotransmitters are received that the THRESHOLD is reached, neuron B
becomes permeable and negatively charged on the outside.
o Change in charge causes ACTION POTENTIAL. If charge is strong enough, repeat the
process.
All-or-none principle – Neuron fires or does not. There is no halfway. Impulse is the same every
time.
Neurotransmitters
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Chemicals that travel in the synaptic gaps.
Two types: excitatory and inhibitory
o Excitatory – cause the neuron to fire
o Inhibitory – cause the neuron to NOT fire
Important Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Endorphins
Serotonon
Function
Problems With too Much/Little
Motor Movement
Lack is associated with Alzheimer’s
Motor Movement and Lack – Parkinson’s
Alertness
Excess – schizophrenia
Pain Control
Involved in addictions
Mood Control
Lack – clinical depression
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Afferent/Sensory Neurons, Efferent/Motor Neurons, and Interneurons
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Afferent/Sensory Neurons – info from senses to brain
o Afferent takes info in At the brain
Efferent/Motor Neurons – take info from brain to rest of body
o Efferent carries info that Exits the brain
SAME
o Sensory = Afferent
o Motor = Efferent
Interneurons – when info reaches the spinal cord, interneurons take the messages and send
them elsewhere in the brain or to efferent neurons
The Nervous System
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Two categories:
o Central nervous system
o Peripheral nervous system
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The Central Nervous System
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Consists of brain and spinal cord (all the nerves in the bone)
Spinal cord runs through the center of the spine. Transmits info from body to rest of brain.
The Peripheral Nervous System
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All the other nerves – the ones not encased in bone.
Two categories – somatic and autonomic
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Somatic Nervous System
 Controls voluntary muscle movement
 Motor cortex send impulses to brain, which control movement muscles
Autonomic Nervous System
 Controls automatic functions – heartbeat, breathing, etc.
 Control stress response – fight or flight
 Two categories – sympathetic and parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous System
 Arouses the body, in response to stress
 Carries messages to muscles, glands, etc. that direct stress response
 Accelerate: HR, BP, breathing; Slow: Digestion
Parasympathetic Nervous System
 Calms body after stress response
 Slows body down.
 It’s the brake of the autonomic nervous system.
 Accelerate: Digestion; Slow: HR, BP, breathing
Reflexes
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Some reactions occur when impulses reach the spinal cord (like when you go to the doctor and
he taps your knee)
Brain does not reach the brain until AFTER the reflex has occurred
Hot/Cold Reflex
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If an object has an extreme temperature, our spine sends a message that jerks us away from the
object.
Keeps us from harming ourselves.
The Brain
Parts of the Brain
Parts of the Brain
Part/Region
Brainstem
Medulla Oblongata
Location
Function
Where spinal cord enters Contains:
skull
 Medulla oblongata
 Reticular formation
 Thalamus (@ top)
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Brainstem
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Reticular formation
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Brainstem
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Controls heartbeat and
breathing
Without it, no purpose in
life
Finger-shaped network of
neurons that extends from
spinal cord to thalamus
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Thalamus
Pons
Cerebellum
The Limbic System
Amygdala
Hypothalamus
Hippocampus
Cerebral cortex
Right hemisphere
Left hemisphere
Temporal lobes
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Filters and relays info
Helps control arousal
Atop the brainstem
Egg-shaped
All senses EXCEPT smell
Routes senses to correct
higher brain regions
 Essentially, sorts the mail
 If the medulla was a router,
the higher brain regions
would be computers
Hindbrain
 Involved in sleep and
dreaming
Extends from rear of
 “little brain”
brainstem
 Coordinates
voluntary
movement
Mid-brain
 Neural system
Contains:
 Amygdala
 Hypothalamus
 Hippocampus
Limbic system
 Influences aggression and
fear
Below thalamus in Limbic
 Influence hunger
system
 Regulate thirst, body temp.
and sex behavior
 Contains “pleasure centers”
The Limbic System
 Processes and creates longlasting memories
 IF A HIPPO CAME ONTO
CAMPUS, YOU WOULD
REMEMBER IT
Covers surface of brain
 Ultimate control and infoprocessing center
 Lateralized
(on
both
hemispheres)
Contains TOPF:
 Temporal
 Occipital
 Parietal
 Frontal
 AND glial cells
Right side
 Controls artistic, functions
and left side of body
Left side
 Controls logic and right side
of body
Near the ears
 Controls comprehension of
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Occipital lobes
Back of the head
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Parietal lobes
Frontal lobes
Top of head
Front of head
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Sensory cortex
Front of parietal lobe
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Motor cortex
Back of frontal lobe
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Glial cells
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Cerebral cortex
Prefrontal cortex
Frontal Lobe
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Wernicke’s area
LEFT parietal lobe
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Broca’s area
LEFT frontal lobe
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Association areas
Cerebral Cortex
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Corpus callosum
Between two hemispheres
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auditory stimuli
Left controls right, vice
versa
Controls visual stimuli
Left controls right, vice
versa
Contains sensory cortex
Speaking
and
muscle
movements
Contains motor cortex
Controls reception of senses
(including smell)
More sensitive the region,
more of cortex dedicated to
it
Controls movement of
muscles and glands
Lateralized
(opposite
controls opposite)
Guide neural connections
Provide
nutrients
and
myelin
THE CLEAN UP CREW
Controls
prioritization,
decision making, social skills
Controls language reception
and comprehension
Controls
language
expression
Not related to motor or
sensory
Higher-level
thinking
(learning, etc)
VERY IMPORTANT
Band of fibers connecting
hemispheres
Ways of Studying the Brain
Scans
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) – body put in strong magnetic field. Can show soft tissue.
BRAIN STRUCTURE
Electroencephalogram (EEG) – recording of electrical currents across brain surface. BRAIN
ACTIVITY
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CT scan (computed tomography) – x-ray of brain tissue. BRAIN STRUCTURE/ THE BLUEPRINT OF
THE BRAIN
PET scan (positron emission tomography) – patient drinks radioactive glucose and scan shows
brain activity as brain performs certain tasks. Like a power meter BRAIN ACTIVITY.
fMRI – combines elements of MRI and PET scans. Shows details of brain structure with
information about blood flow of the brain.
Accidents
 Things like Phineas Gage and his railway accident
Lesions
 Removal/destruction of some part of the brain.
 Used in things like tumors that cannot be removed any other way.
 Early example: frontal lobotomy
Endocrine System
 Secretes hormones
o Chemical messengers like neurotransmitters
 Endocrine system much slower.
 Adrenal gland –
o Release epinephrine (adrenaline)/norepinephrine (nonadrenaline)
 Pituitary gland –
o Pea-sized structure in base of brain
o Controls release of hormones from other glands
o THE MASTER GLAND
 Ovaries and testes
o Produce sex hormones (ovaries for women, testes for men)
 Estrogen is dominant in females
 Testosterone is dominant in males
o Levels of these hormones explain gender differences
Genetics
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Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs.
The genetic material in humans is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Genes can be dominant or recessive
Twins
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Genetic influence can make twins incredibly alike.
Bouchard study
Showed IQ is heavily influenced by genetics, etc.
Environment plays some role
Chromosomal Abnormalities
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Gender is determined by 23rd pair of chromosomes
o Males – XY
o Females – XX
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Examples of abnormalities – Trisomy of chromosome pair 21 is Down syndrome (extra
chromosome on 21st pair)
Sensation and Perception
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All senses are processed similarly
Go through transduction – process by which messages are encoded into neural impulses
o All impulses are routed through the thalamus (EXCEPTION – SMELL)
Sensation is the process of impulses being received
Perception is you realizing/acknowledging that some of those impulses are pertinent to your
current situation
Sensory adaptation – decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation (you
don’t feel your underwear all day)
Sensory habituation – attention to certain stimuli is based on how focused we are on them
(after reading the last bullet point, you are probably aware of your underwear)
Cocktail-party effect – ability to focus on one conversation in a room of many
Vision
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Step One: Gathering light
o Light is electromagnetic and is part of that spectrum
o Colors are waves that are reflected. A red car absorbs all colors except red, which it
reflects
o White is a reflection of all colors
o Black is the absorption of all colors.
o ROY G. BIV
Step Two: Within the Eye
o All starts when light enters the
eye through the cornea.
 Cornea protects the eye
and also helps to focus
light
o The light then goes to the pupil
– it is like a camera shutter
(regulates the amount of light
that gets into the eye.
 When you are in a
bright place, the pupil
contracts to let less
light in
 When you are in the
dark, it dilates to allow
more light in
o The iris is the set of muscles that dilates/contracts the pupil
 This is the part of your eye that is colored
o The light then undergoes accommodation
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This is where the lens focuses the light.
The lens is curved and flexible, which helps it to focus light
Images that pass through the lens are upside down and inverted.
That images projected onto the retina (which is like a screen in the back of your
eye.
Step Three: Transduction
o Two types of cells in the eye – rods and cones
 Rods: black and white vision. In the periphery of the eye. (That’s why peripheral
vision is mostly black and white)
 Cones: color vision. In the fovea
o Rods outnumber cones 20:1
o If enough rods and cones fire, bipolar cells are activated. These cells activate ganglion
cells which sends the impulse up the optic nerve to the thalamus. From there it is sent
to the occipital lobe’s visual cortex
Feature detectors
o Hubel and Wiesel discovered that groups of neurons in the visual cortex respond to
different types of images
o Example: A frog has feature detectors for bugs that help it quickly recognize and catch
them.
Vision Theories
Trichromatic Theory
 Emphasizes that there are 3 types of cones – red, green, and blue (RGB)
 Think of this theory as assuming that our eyes are like TV screens – only have RGB pixels
 Does not explain afterimages or color blindness
Opponent-Process Theory
 Sensory receptors come in pairs
o RED/GREEN
o YELLOW/BLUE
o BLACK/WHITE
 Explains afterimages
o When you stare a red image for a long time, you exhaust the red sensors. When you
shift your gaze to something (say, a white wall), the green sensors fire (b/c they are the
opponent pair)
 Also explains colorblindness
o Colorblindness comes in pairs usually
o Most people are not just green colorblind, they are red-green colorblind.
Hearing
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Sound waves are vibrations in the air. NOT electromagnetic spectrum
Amplitude of sound waves – height of the waves (loudness measured in decibels)
Frequency if sound waves – length of the waves (pitch measured in hertz)
How it works:
o Sound waves are collected in outer ear
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o
o
o
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They then travel down the ear canal (auditory canal) and to the eardrum/tympanic
membrane. As sound waves hit the eardrum, vibrates.
The eardrum is connected to three bones – the hammer, anvil, and stirrup that transmit
the vibration to the oval
window.
The oval window is connected
to the cochlea, which vibrates
 Inside the cochlea is
the mucus lines basilar
membrane that has
hair cells.
 When these cells
vibrate, the organ of
Corti converts these
vibrations to neural
impulses.
The auditory nerve send this information to the temporal lobe, via the thalamus
Pitch Theories
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Place Theory
Frequency Theory
Place Theory
 Says the hair cells in the cochlea respond to different theories because of where they are
PLACED in the cochlea.
Frequency Theory
 Explains high pitches
 Tones are sensed at the rate by which hair cells fire.
 The cells fire at different frequencies, which generates different frequencies
Deafness
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Conduction deafness – issue in getting sound to cochlea. Can be fixed with hearing aid, surgery,
etc.
Nerve (sensorineural) deafness – hair cells in cochlea are damaged. Cannot be fixed (maybe a
cochlear implant)
Touch (Tactile)
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Indentations, piercings, changes in temperature trigger touch senses.
Nerve endings are denser in some places (like in fingers) than in others (like your elbow)
If receptors are stimulated sharply – causes pain
Gate-control theory of pain – some pain messages are given higher priority.
o High priority messages open the gate, but it stays closed for the low priority ones.
o (the gate is just a metaphor)
o Endorphins also close the gate. Endogenous morphine…
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Taste (Gustatory)
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These nerves respond to chemicals that are detected by taste buds on papillae (the bumpy part
of your tongue)
Five different types of taste
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