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Functions of the Nervous
System
Sensory
senses stimuli from both within the body and from the
external environment
The NERVOUS System
Integrative
analyzes, interprets, and stores information about the
stimuli it has receives from the sensory portion of the
nervous system
Motor
responds to stimuli by some type of action
muscular contraction
glandular secretion
Divisions of the Nervous
System
Nervous System Schematic
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic Division
Parasympathetic Division
Nervous System Schematic
Nervous System Schematic
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The Central Nervous System
Consists of the brain and the spinal cord
Sorts incoming sensory information
Generates thoughts and emotions
Forms and stores memories
Stimulates muscle contractions
Stimulates glandular secretions
The Peripheral Nervous System
Connects sensory receptors, muscles, and glands in
the peripheral parts of the body to the central
nervous system
Consists of cranial and spinal nerves
Afferent Neurons (Sensory)
conduct nerve impulses from sensory receptors
toward the CNS
Efferent Neurons (Motor)
conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to muscles and
glands
Consists of the somatic and autonomic systems
The Somatic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System
Made up of sensory neurons that convey
information from the cutaneous and special
sense receptors in the head, body wall, and
extremities to the CNS
Contains sensory neurons mainly from the viscera
that convey information to the CNS
Also contains the motor neurons from the CNS
that conduct impulses to the skeletal muscles
Unconscious control
Contains the efferent neurons that conduct impulses
to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Divisions include:
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic Division
Sympathetic Division— “Fight or
Flight”
Cope with stress or emergency
situations
Increase in heart rate, blood
glucose levels, breathing rate
Pupils dilate
Increased blood flow to
muscles, lungs, heart
Reduced digestive activity due
to decreased blood flow to
visceral organs
Parasympathetic Division
Parasympathetic Division—
“Rest and Relaxation”
Helps body return to
homeostasis
Decrease in heart rate,
breathing rate, and blood
glucose levels
Reduced blood flow to skeletal
muscle
Increased digestive activity due
to increased blood flow to
visceral organs
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Activity
Directions: Choose the responses that best correspond to the
descriptions provided in the following statements. Insert the
appropriate letter in the answer blanks.
A. Autonomic Nervous System
C. Peripheral Nervous System
B. Central Nervous System
D. Somatic Nervous System
________________1. Nervous System subdivision that is
composed of the brain and spinal cord.
________________2. Subdivision of the PNS that controls voluntary
activities.
Neurons
The nerve cells responsible for the special functions of the
nervous system
sensing
remembering
thinking
controlling muscle activity
controlling glandular secretions
Synapse - the functional relay points between two neurons or
between a neuron and an effector organ
Neuromuscular Junction
Neuroglandular Junction
________________3. Nervous system subdivision that is composed
of the cranial and spinal nerves.
________________4. Subdivision of the PNS that regulates the
activity of the heart and smooth muscle
(involuntary).
Parts of A Neuron
Neuron
Cell Body (Soma or Perikaryon)
nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles of a neuron
Dendrites - tapered, highly branched processes
protruding from the cell body
usually very short
AFFERENT FUNCTION
Axons - long, thin,
cylindrical process
usually myelinated
EFFERENT
FUNCTION
Neurons
Neuroglia
Nervous system cells that support, nurture and
protect the neurons
Types of Neuroglia found in the CNS
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal Cells
Types of Neuroglia found in the PNS
Neurolemmocytes (Schwann Cells)
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Neuroglia of the CNS
Astrocytes
Star-shaped cells with many processes
Participate in metabolism of neurotransmitters
Maintain K+ balance for generation of nervous
impulses
Participate in brain development
Help form the blood brain barrier
Provide a link between neurons and blood
vessels
Astrocyte
Oligodendrocytes
Small cells with few processes
Form a supporting network around the neurons
by twining around neurons and producing a lipid
and protein wrapping around the neurons (myelin
sheath)
Microglia
Small phagocytic cells that protect the central
nervous system by engulfing and invading microbes
Clears away debris from dead cells
Ependymal Cells
Neuroglia cells that line the brain ventricles
Line the central canal of the spinal cord
Helps form and circulate cerebral spinal fluid
Help form the blood-CSF barrier (different from
the blood-brain barrier)
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Ependymal Cells
Neuroglia of the PNS
Schwann Cells - Neurolemmocytes
Cells responsible for producing the myelin
sheaths around the PNS neurons
Schwann Cell
(Neurolemmocyte)
Neuroglia Overview
Myelination
Myelination
The process of developing or producing a Myelin
Sheath
Insulates the axon of a neuron
Increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction
CNS - oligodendrocytes
PNS - neurolemmocytes (Schwann Cells)
Diseases such as Tay-Sachs disease and Multiple
Sclerosis involve destruction of the myelin sheaths
around the nerve
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Unmyelinated Axon
Myelinated Axon
Activity
Activity
Match the anatomical terms that best correspond to the following
statements. Place the correct letter in the answer blanks.
Match the anatomical terms that best correspond to the following
statements. Place the correct letter in the answer blanks.
A. Axon
A. Axon
D. Myelin Sheath
B. Axon Bulb
E. Cell Body
D. Myelin Sheath
B. Axon Bulb
E. Cell Body
C. Dendrite
C. Dendrite
__________1. Releases neurotransmitters
____B_____1. Releases neurotransmitters
__________2. Directs messages toward the cell body
____C_____2. Directs messages toward the cell body
__________3. Increases the speed of the message
____D_____3. Increases the speed of the message
__________4. Location of the nucleus
____E_____4. Location of the nucleus
__________5. Long extension that takes messages to the target
____A_____5. Long extension that takes messages to the target
Transmission of Nerve Impulses
Nerve Impulse: An electrical event due to
movement of ions across a membrane
Neurophysiology
The transmission of nerve (electrical) impulses from nervous
tissue to other nervous tissue, organs, glands, and
muscles.
Also called an action potential
Lasts about 1 msec (1/1000 of a second)
Dependent upon diameter of the axon
larger diameter axons - 0.4 msec (1/2500 sec)
2500 impulses per second
smaller diameter axons - 4 msec (1/250 sec)
250 impulses per second
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All or None Principle
Neuron Membrane
Potential
If depolarization reaches a threshold, an action
potential (impulse) is conducted
Each action potential (impulse) is conducted at
maximum strength unless there are toxic
materials within the cell or the membrane has
been disrupted
Neuron Action Potential
Action Potential
Resting phase (polarization)
The axon is not actively conducting nerve impulses. Sodium is the ion found in
the greatest concentration in the extracellular fluid. Potassium is the ion found
in the greatest concentration in the intracellular fluid. The outside charge of the
polarized membrane is positive while the inside charge of the polarized
membrane is negative.
Depolarization phase
As the action potential propagates down the length of the axon, the sodium
channels open in the axon membrane. Sodium, which is found in greater
concentration in the extracellular fluid, rushes through the protein channels
creating a negative charge in the extracellular fluid and a positive charge in the
intracellular fluid.
Repolarization phase
Just split seconds after the opening of the sodium channels, the potassium
channels in the axon membrane open. Since potassium is found in greater
concentration within the cell, potassium ions rush outward. This flow of
positively charged ions restores the positive charge outside of the cell and the
negative charge inside of the cell.
Refractory period
During this period of time, no nerve impulses (action potentials) can be sent.
The sodium-potassium pump (using ATP) functions to restore the ion
concentration of the polarized cell by pumping sodium ions out of the cell and
bringing potassium ions into the cell.
Neuron Impulse
Neuron
Action
Potential
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Types of Impulse Conduction
Nerve Conduction
Continuous Conduction - step by step depolarization
of each sequential, adjacent area of of the nerve cell
membrane
typical of unmyelinated nerve fibers
type of action potential in muscle fibers
Saltatory Conduction - the jumping of an action
potential across specialized neurofibril nodes along
the axon
Nodes of Ranvier
Nerve Conduction—Myelinated
Axon
Transmission of Nerve Impulses
at Synapses
Most nervous conduction is from neuron to neuron
(interneurons - 90%)
Types of Synapses
Axon to dendrite
Axon to soma
Axon to axon
Two ways to transmit impulses across a synapse
Electrical Synapses
Chemical Synapses
Reflexes
Fast, predictable, automatic responses to changes
in the environment that help maintain homeostasis
Somatic Reflexes - involve skeletal muscles
Visceral (Autonomic) Reflexes - involve responses
of smooth muscles, the heart, and glands
Involve the spinal nerves
The Reflex Arc
A response by the body involving only the body
segment being affected and the spinal cord
Brain does not have to be involved
Receptor - the distal end of a sensory neuron
(dendrite)
Responds to a specific stimulus
a change in internal or external environment
Triggers a nerve impulse
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Receptor - the distal end of a sensory neuron (dendrite)
Responds to a specific stimulus
a change in internal or external environment
The Reflex Arc
Triggers a nerve impulse
Sensory Neuron - the neuron located in the gray matter
of the spinal cord
conducts impulses from the receptor to the spinal cord
Integrating Center - a region within the CNS (spinal cord
or brain) that interprets the information from the sensory
neuron and initiates an appropriate response
Motor Neurons - the neurons arising from the integrating
center that relay a nerve impulse to the part of the body
that will respond to the stimulus
Effector - the part of the body that responds to the motor
nerve impulse (usually a muscle or a gland)
Effector - skeletal muscle - somatic reflex
Effector - cardiac, smooth muscle, or gland -visceral reflex
Reflex Arc Examples
Tendon Reflex
Stretch Reflex - results in the contraction of a
muscle if it has been stretched suddenly
Tendon Reflex - results in the contraction of a
muscle when a tendon is stretched suddenly
Flexor (Withdrawal) Reflex - sudden contraction and
removal of a body segment as a result of a pain
stimulus
Withdrawal
Reflex
Also called the
Flexor/Withdrawal
Reflex
Spinal Nerves
Also called nerve roots
Branch off the spinal cord and pass out through the
vertebral foramen
Carry information from the spinal cord to the rest of the
body, and from the body back up to the brain.
Four main groups of spinal nerves, which exit different
levels of the spinal cord:
Cervical Nerves "C" : (nerves in the neck) supply movement
and feeling to the arms, neck and upper trunk. Also control
breathing.
Thoracic Nerves "T" : (nerves in the upper back) supply the
trunk and abdomen.
Lumbar Nerves "L" : (nerves in the lower back) supply the
legs, the bladder, bowel and sexual organs
Sacral Nerves "S" : (nerves in the lower back) supply the legs,
the bladder, bowel and sexual organs
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Spinal Nerves
The BRAIN
The BRAIN
One of the largest organs in the body
Controls all mental functions
Component of the CNS
Composed of over 100 billion neurons
Comprises 2-3% of body weight
Utilizes over 20% of body’s energy
Brain Video
Major Divisions of the BRAIN
CEREBRUM - occupies most of the cranium and is
divided into right and left halves called hemispheres
CEREBELLUM - the posterior-inferior portion of the
brain
BRAIN STEM - consists of the medulla oblongata,
the pons, and the midbrain
it is continuous with the spinal cord
DIENCEPHALON - located above the brainstem,
composed primarily of the:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
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The Brain
Ventricles
Cavities within the brain
Lateral ventricles (2) - located within each
hemisphere in the cerebrum
Third ventricle - a vertical slit between the lateral
ventricles and inferior to the right and left halves
of the thalamus
Fourth ventricle - space between the brainstem
and the cerebellum
Ventricles of the Brain
Choroid Plexus
Network of capillaries in the walls of the
ventricles
Formation of CSF by the choroid plexus
is facilitated by the very high rates of
blood flow to the choroid plexus
Covered with ependymal cells that form
the cerebrospinal fluid
In the choroid plexus the ependymal
cells are, in contrast to elsewhere in the
brain, tightly bound by tight junctions
That means, these ependymal cells are
so close together they form the bloodCSF barrier (different than the bloodbrain barrier).
Selectively permeable barrier
White cells are capillary
endothelial cells
Blood-CSF vs Blood-Brain Barriers
Blue cells are ependymal
cells
The structure of cell
layers in the choroid
plexus/BCB (blood-CSF
barrier) is shown in the
top of the figure.
The structure of cell
layers elsewhere in the
brain/BBB (blood-brain
barrier) is shown in the
lower part of the figure.
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Gray and White Matter
Gray and White Matter
White Matter - the aggregation of myelinated
processes from many neurons
Visible upon freshly dissected brain or spinal tissue
White color is due to myelination
Gray Matter - unmyelinated nerve cell bodies,
axons, dendrites, ganglia, and axon terminals
Appears gray because of lack of myelin
Protection and Coverings of
the Brain
Protected by the cranial bones and the cranial
meninges
Dura Mater - outer layer
Arachnoid - middle layer
Pia Mater - inner layer
Also protected by cerebrospinal fluid
fluid that nourishes and protects the brain and spinal
cord
continuously circulates through the subarachnoid
space around the brain and throughout the cavities
within the brain
Meninges
Spinal Cord
Protective
Coverings
Dura Mater
Arachnoid
Pia Mater
Meninges of the Brain
Connective tissue covering found around the brain
and spinal cord
Three layered membrane
Dura Mater - outer most layer
dense irregular connective tissue
Arachnoid - middle layer
spider web arrangement of collagen fibers
Pia Mater - inner most meninges
very delicate layer of thin tissue
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
Mechanical Protection
Serves as a shock absorbing medium
Buoys the brain so it literally floats within the cranial
cavity
Chemical Protection
Provides an optimal chemical environment for neural
signaling
Flow of
CerebroSpinal
Fluid
Circulation
Acts as a medium for exchange of nutrients and
waste products between the blood and nervous tissue
Blood Supply to the Brain
Flow of
CerebroSpinal
Fluid
One of the most metabolically active organs in the
body
Makes up only 2-3% of body weight but uses about
20% of available O2 at rest
Well supplied with O2 and nutrients
Only nutritional source for brain metabolic activity is
glucose
Capillaries in the brain are much less leaky than
other capillaries in the body and form a blood brain
barrier
The Brain Stem
The Medulla Oblongata
Most inferior portion of the brain stem
The most inferior portion of the brain
Connects the brain stem to the spinal cord
Connects the brain to the spinal cord
Respiratory Center
Composed of Three Areas
The Medulla Oblongata
The Pons
The Midbrain
Adjusts rhythm and depth of breathing
Cardiovascular Center
Regulates heart rate and contraction force
Influences vasoconstriction and vasodilation
Also controls coughing, vomiting, swallowing, and
hiccupping
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The Medulla Oblongata
The Medulla Oblongata
The Pons
The Midbrain
Lies superior to the medulla oblongata
Superior to the pons
Together with the respiratory center in the
medulla helps control respiration
Connects the brain stem to the diencephalon
Pons and Midbrain
The Diencephalon
Area of the brain containing the:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
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The Thalamus
Oval structure that makes up 80% of the
diencephalon
Comprised of a pair of oval masses (mostly gray
matter)
Principle relay station between the various
sections of the brain
The Hypothalamus
A small portion of the diencephalon located below the
thalamus
One of the main regulators of homeostasis in the body
Lacks a blood brain barrier
Partially protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid
bone
Functions of the Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Coordinates nervous system and endocrine system
activities to maintain homeostasis
Thirst, Hunger, Satiety
Sleep Patterns and Waking States
Temperature regulation
Sex Drive, Maturation, Aggression, and Rage
Influences movement of food through the
Gastrointestinal Tract
production and secretion of hormones that control
other Endocrine Glands
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The Cerebrum
Largest division of the brain
The Cerebrum
Occupies most of the cranium
Accounts for 85% of brain mass
Divided into right and left hemispheres
Longitudinal Fissure
Corpus Callosum
Connects the two hemispheres
Cerebral cortex - the outer surface area of the
cerebrum
Composed mainly of gray matter
Contains billions of neurons
Terms associated with the
Cerebrum
Lobes of the Cerebrum
Gyri
A series of folds in the cortex that increase surface
area
Sulci
A groove or furrow that separates the gyri of the brain
Named after the bones that cover them
Frontal Lobe
Parietal Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Occipital Lobe
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A Note about the Cerebral
Cortex
Frontal Lobe
Motor Areas
Controls movement of voluntary skeletal muscles
The cerebral cortex is the most highly developed
part of the human brain and is responsible for
thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding
language
It is also the most recent structure in the history of
brain evolution
Association Areas
Carry on high level intellectual processing
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Planning
Concentration
Memory
Behavior
Emotions
Expressions
Broca’s area
One of the main areas responsible for speech production
Parietal Lobe
Sensory Areas
Interprets sensations from the skin such as:
touch
temperature
pressure
pain
Association Areas
Understanding of speech
Using words to express thoughts and feelings
Temporal Lobe
Sensory Areas
Hearing and balance
Association Areas
Interpret sensory experiences
Memory of visual scenes - music - smells and other
complex sensory patterns
Wernicke’s Area
region of the brain where spoken language is understood
(speech comprehension)
Occipital Lobe
Sensory Areas
Visual processing and interpretation
Association Areas
Combines visual images with sensory experience
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Left Brain vs Right Brain
Right side of brain
controls left side of
body
Left side of brain
controls right side
of body
New research at
the U of U indicates
left and right brain
attributes aren’t as
clear cut as once
thought
A little rap to help you
remember…
The occipital lobe controls your sight. Why it does, we
don’t know why.
The temporal lobe controls how you hear, like the
clucking of a chicken or the stomping of a deer.
The parietal lobe processes what you touch whatever
you can squeeze or grab or clutch.
The Cerebellum
Second largest portion of the brain
Occupies the inferior and posterior aspects of the cranial
cavity
Processes sensory information
Balance
Coordination
Maintains postural equilibrium
The frontal lobe helps you think and memorize so you
can process what you need right before your eyes.
These are the lobes of the brain and now you know them
so call up all your friends and don’t forget to show em’
WORD!
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Cerebellum and Brainstem
Nervous System Disorders
and
Homeostatic Imbalances
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
Alzheimer’s vs. Dementia
Disabling neurological disorder that effects about
11% of the population
Dementia is not a disease itself, it is the symptoms
6th leading cause of death in the U.S.
It is the only cause of death among the top 10 in
America without a way to prevent it, cure it or even
slow its progression.
A chronic, organic, mental disorder, a form of presenile dementia due to atrophy of neurons of the
frontal and occipital lobes
AD patients usually die from complications due to
being bedridden
language difficulty,
loss of recent memory
poor judgment
Alzheimer’s accounts for 60-70% of dementia cases
Other types of dementia include:
Vascular dementia
Parkinson's disease
dementia with Lewy Bodies
Frontotemporal dementia.
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Amyotrophic Lateral
Sclerosis (ALS)
Also known as Lou Gehrig’s
Disease
A relatively rare neurological
disorder
A syndrome marked by muscular
weakness and atrophy with
spasticity and hyperflexion due to
degeneration of the motor neurons
of the spinal cord, medulla, and
cortex
A degenerative disease
No known cure
Cerebral Palsy (CP)
A group of motor disorders due to loss of muscle
control
Caused by damage to the motor areas of the brain
during fetal development, birth, or infancy
About 70% of CP individuals are somewhat mentally
retarded due to the inability to hear well or speak
fluently
Not a progressive disease but the symptoms are
irreversible
Bacterial Meningitis
Infection of the
meninges by the
bacterium Haemophilus
Influenzae
Usually affects children
under age 5
Symptoms include
severe headaches and
fever
Can lead to brain
damage and even
death if not treated
Epilepsy
Short, recurrent, periodic,
attacks of motor, sensory,
or psychological
malfunction
Characterized by seizures
which can result in
involuntary skeletal muscle
contraction, loss of muscle
control, inability to sense
light, noise, and smell, and
loss of consciousness
Most epileptic seizures are
idiopathic
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
Parkinson’s Disease (PD)
The progressive destruction of the
myelin sheaths of neurons of the
CNS
A chronic nervous disease
characterized by a fine, slowly
spreading tremor, muscle weakness
and rigidity, and a peculiar gait
The sheaths deteriorates to
scleroses
Usually affects people over 60
hardened scars or plaques
“short circuits” nerve transmission
Cause is unknown
May be a type of an autoimmune
disease
No known cure
Progressive loss of function with
intermittent periods of remission
Cause is unknown but a toxic
environmental factor is suspected
Chemical basis of the disease appears
to be too little dopamine and too much
Ach
Treatment includes increasing levels of
dopamine and decreasing Ach
Difficult because dopamine does not
cross the blood brain barrier
Usually can be controlled with drug
therapy
GABA - gamma aminobutyric acid
Attempting to transplant fetal nervous
tissue into the damaged area of the
brain of some Parkinson’s Disease
patients
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Cerebral Vascular Accident
(CVA) - Stroke
The most common brain disorder
Characterized by slurred speech, loss of or
blurred vision, dizziness, weakness, paralysis of
a limb or hemiplegia, coma, and death
Risk Factors for Stroke
hypertension
heart disease
smoking
diabetes
Ischemic CVA - due to lack of blood supply to a
particular area of the brain
atherosclerosis
Hemorrhagic CVA - due to the rupture of a blood
vessel in the brain
obesity
Symptoms of a Stroke
hyperlipidemia
excessive alcohol intake
Is it a stroke?
Sudden numbness, tingling, weakness, or loss
of movement in your face, arm, or leg,
especially on only one side of your body (facial
drooping)
Sudden vision changes.
Sudden trouble speaking.
Sudden confusion or trouble understanding
simple statements.
Sudden problems with walking or balance.
A sudden, severe headache that is different
from past headaches.
Reye’s Syndrome
Acute childhood illness that causes
fatty infiltration of the liver and brain,
encephalopathy, and increased
intracranial pressure
Almost always follows within 1 to 3
days of an acute viral infection, flu,
or chicken pox
Common in infants and children.
The incidence often arises during flu
outbreaks
May be linked to aspirin use
Symptoms include vomiting, mood
changes, confusion, tachycardia,
and tachypnea
Hydrocephalus
Excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid within
the ventricles of the brain.
Occurs most often in newborns
The head is enlarged and the brain may be
compressed causing brain damage
Early detection and surgical intervention improves the
prognosis
Complications of the surgery include infection of the
shunt.
Treatment involves treating the
symptoms
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Hydrocephalus
Spina Bifida
Congenital defect where the neural arch fails to unit
Usually involves the lumbar vertebrae
Symptoms may be mild to severe
usually results in paralysis
partial or complete loss of bladder control
absence of reflexes
Can be diagnosed during pregnancy by sonography,
amniocentesis, blood tests
Spina Bifida
Spina Bifida
Spina Bifida
Spina Bifida
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Headaches
Headaches
Most commonly begins as a patient complaint, but is usually a
symptom of an underlying disorder
Ninety percent are caused by vascular problems or muscle
contractions
Tension headaches
mild, dull pressure without other accompanying symptoms
Cluster headaches
severe pain (sometimes described as “stabbing” pain) behind one
eye, and may be accompanied by redness and nasal congestion
Sinus headaches
pain and pressure behind the brow and cheek bones
Migraines
pounding headache, nausea, vomiting, and light sensitivity
Concussion
Most common head injury resulting from a blow to the head – a blow
hard enough to jostle the brain and make it hit against the skull
causing temporary neural dysfunction.
Precipitating causes include a fall to the ground, a punch to the head,
automobile accidents and child abuse
Most victims recover within 24 to 48 hours after the injury
Symptoms
a loss of consciousness
vomiting
possible amnesia
dizziness
headache
Lethargy
Treatment
Monitoring vital signs, mental status, level of consciousness, and
pupil size
Whiplash
Whiplash
Results from a sharp hyperextension and flexion of the neck that damages the
muscles, ligaments, disks and nerve tissue
Common after rear-end automobile accidents.
Padded headrests and shoulder harnesses reduce the risk of this type of injury.
Symptoms can include:
pain in the interior and posterior neck
dizziness
headache
neck rigidity
numbness in the arms
Treatment includes:
immobilizing the neck at the scene of the accident
ruling out spinal cord injury
analgesics
warm compresses
a cervical collar
possible physical therapy
Spinal Cord Injury (SCI)
Commonly referred to as a broken neck
Involves injury to the spinal cord
The more superior the injury, the more permanent damage results to the patient
Causes of the injury include:
motor vehicle accidents
falls
sporting injuries (football, skiing)
diving into shallow water
gunshot wounds.
Paralysis of the body may occur
Paraplegia:
lower half of the body is paralyzed
Quadriplegia:
body from the neck down is paralyzed
Treatment:
maintaining vital functions and rehabilitation to maintain the use of muscles.
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Depression
This is a sad mood, which may be a primary disorder, a response to a
disease process or a drug reaction.
Causes include:
Genetic
Familial
Biochemical
Physical and physiological processes
The person may have feelings of helplessness, anger, hopelessness,
low self-esteem, and pessimism
Other symptoms include weight loss or weight gain, sleep disturbance,
depressed mood most of the day, energy loss, fatigue, difficulty thinking
or concentrating
Treatment may involve:
Psychotherapy
drug therapy
Counseling
Light therapy
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