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Chapter 49 Nervous Systems Student Guided Notes Concept 49.1 Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells In most animals with nervous systems, clusters of neurons perform specialized functions. Such clustering is absent in the cnidarians, the simplest animals with nervous systems. o In cnidarians, nerve cells form a ___________________________________________. In more complex animals, the axons of multiple nerve cells may be bundled to form _______________. Animals with bilaterally symmetrical bodies have more specialized nervous systems. o Such animals exhibit cephalization, __________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________. In vertebrates, the ___________________ and the _________________________ form the central nervous system CNS; the _______________________ and _______________________ make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS). A variety of glia are present throughout the vertebrate brain and spinal cord. The major types of glia (connective tissue of nervous system) nourish, support and regulate neurons. o __________________________________ and ______________________ cells function in axon myelination, a critical activity in the vertebrate nervous system. o Astrocytes induce cells that line the capillaries in the CNS to form tight junctions. o The result is the ________________________________________________, which controls the extracellular environment of the CNS by restricting the entry of substances from the blood. The brain and spinal cord of the vertebrate CNS are tightly coordinated. The brain integrates the complex behavior of vertebrates. The spinal cord conveys information to and from the brain and generates basic patterns of locomotion. The spinal cord acts independently as part of the simple nerve circuits that produce reflexes, _________ ___________________________________________________ (ex. pulling hand away from hot stove.) Cerebrospinal fluid is formed in the brain _______________________________________________. o In mammals, it fills the spaces in the brain and the spinal cord. The function is to act as a shock absorber. The brain and the spinal cord contain gray and white matter. 49-1 o Gray matter consists of ____________________________, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons. o White matter contains ___________________________ with myelin sheaths. The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS and regulates a vertebrate’s movement and internal environment. See Figure 49.8 p. 1083 Sensory (___________________________) Division incoming neurons Motor (____________________________) Division outgoing neurons o The motor system is also divided: o Somatic Nervous System controls signals to skeletal muscles (voluntary and involuntary.) o ___________________________ nervous system is involuntary. (memory tip: “autonomic is automatic”) The three divisions of the autonomic nervous system—____________________, _____________________________, and ____________________—control the organs of the digestive, cardiovascular, excretory, and endocrine systems. See Figure 49.9 p. 1084 The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions function antagonistically. The sympathetic division is responsible for ___________________ and ________________________. (FIGHT OR FLIGHT) o The heart beats _____________________, the liver converts ___________________ to _____________________, _______________________ is inhibited, and secretion of ______________________________ from the adrenal medulla is stimulated. Uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter. The parasympathetic division causes opposite responses that promote __________________ and a return to _____________________________________________________. (REST AND DIGEST) o Lowers ___________________________, increases ________________________ production, and enhances ___________________________. Uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter. 49-2 Concept 49.2 The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized See Figure 49.11 p. 1086-87 o The vertebrate brain has three major regions: the _____________________, __________________, and ___________________________. o The forebrain activities include ______________________________________________________, ____________________________________________, ______________________, and _________ ______________________________________________. • Cerebrum, Diencephalons, Thalmus, Hypothalamus, Epithalmus o The midbrain coordinates __________________________________________________________ o The hindbrain controls _____________________________________________, such as ________ _______________________________, and coordinates __________________________________, such as locomotion. • Pons, Medulla oblongata, Cerebellum SUMMARY OF PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND FUNCTIONS Brainstem (aka “lower brain”) Major functions of the brainstem: homeostasis, coordination of movement, conduction of information to higher brain centers 1) Medulla oblongata (also called simply the medulla) Controls __________________________ ______________________________ (ex. respiration, swallowing digestion, heart rate, circulation) 2) Pons Also helps control automatic functions (ex. regulate breathing centers in the medulla) 3) Midbrain Acts as a projection center; send coded sensory information to parts of the forebrain Cerebellum Functions in coordination, muscle action Involved in _________________________ and remembering __________________________ Balance and ______________________________ coordination Thalmus/Hypothalmus/Epithalmus Epithalmus Produces _____________________________________ fluid Thalmus Main _______________________ center for information going to the ________________ Main ______________________ center for information leaving the cerebrum Hypothalmus Important in homeostatic regulation Control center including _____________________________ functions (sleep/wake), circadian rhythm 49-3 Source of hormones (refer to CH 45) AND regulates the pituitary ______________________________ of the body Regulates __________________________________________ Sexual and mating behavior Initiates _________________________________________ response Cerebrum Most highly developed structure in the mammalian brain Right and left hemispheres are connected by the _________________________________ Right side math, logical operations, serial sequences of information Left side pattern and face recognition, spatial relations, nonverbal thinking Each hemisphere consists of: Gray matter (cerebral cortex) - covering White matter – internal part Basal nuclei - found deep in the white matter; important in _______________________ ___________________________________________________________ Cerebral cortex (“gray matter”) largest and most complex part Includes extra layers called the neocortex in mammals Each side of the cerebrum has four lobes: Frontal motor cortex, speech, emotions Parietal somatosensory cortex, taste, speech, reading, touch, pain, pressure, temp Temporal smell, hearing Occipital vision The brainstem and cerebrum control arousal and sleep. Arousal and sleep are controlled in part by the __________________________________________, a system of neurons that passes through the brainstem. Circadian rhythms rely on a biological clock. Circadian rhythms are daily cycles of _________________________________________. Circadian rhythms rely on a biological clock (typically 24 hours), ______________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________. (This is also partially due to external signals) Responsible for hormone release and sex drive. 49-4 Emotions depend on many brain structures. The generation and experience of emotions depend on many brain structures, including the ______________________, ____________________________, and parts of the __________________. o These structures border the brainstem in mammals and are grouped as the _____________________. o The limbic system forms a ring around the brainstem and is composed of the hippocampus and the olfactory cortex. o The limbic system also functions in motivation, olfaction, behavior, and memory. Emotions are due to the frontal lobe and the limbic system. Emotional memory related to fear is stored separately from the memory system that supports explicit recall of events. o The brain structure with the most important role in storage of emotional memory is the ___________________________, an almond-shaped mass of nuclei located ___________________ ____________________________________________________________________. Concept 49.3 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions The cerebrum is essential for awareness of our surroundings, language, _______________________, ____________________________, and consciousness. Cognitive functions reside in the cortex, __________________________________________________. Each side of the cerebral cortex has a ______________________, ______________________, _______________________, and __________________________ lobe, each named _______________ _________________________________________________. Information is processed in the cerebral cortex. Some of the sensory input to the cerebral cortex comes from groups of receptors clustered in dedicated sensory organs, such as the ______________ and ______________________. o Somatosensory cortex receptors provide information about _____________________, _________, ______________________, __________________________, and the position of muscles and limbs. o Motor cortex commands particular behavior (ex. moving a limb.) Most sensory information coming into the cortex is directed via the _______________________ to ___________________________________________________________________________________. o The thalamus directs different types of input to distinct locations: Visual information is sent to the occipital lobe, whereas auditory input is directed to the temporal lobe. 49-5 Frontal lobes influence what are often called “executive functions.” (ex. planning, decision making) Language and speech are localized in the cerebrum. Damage to particular regions of the cortex by ____________________, ______________________, or ______________________ produce distinctive changes in behavior. Discoveries by Pierre Broca and Karl Wernicke determined the following regarding language and speech: o A small region of the ____________________________________________, Broca’s area, controls muscles in the face. o A posterior portion of the left ________________________ lobe, Wernicke’s area controls the ability to _______________________________________ but not _________________ __________________________________. Cortical function is lateralized. The left hemisphere is more adept at __________________ and _______________________________, while the right hemisphere is dominant in the recognition of __________________________________, spatial relations, and ________________________________________. The two hemispheres trade information through the fibers of the _______________________________. Concept 49.4 Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning The nervous system is plastic. The nervous system has a great capacity to be remodeled ____________________________________ ______________________________________, o This is called neural plasticity. Autism, a developmental disorder that first appears early in childhood, involves __________________ __________________________________________________________________________________. o Children affected with autism display ____________________________________________ and ______________________________________________, as well ___________________________ ____________________________________________________. Memory and learning rely on neural plasticity. The formation of memories is due to neural plasticity. We constantly check what is happening against what just happened a few moments ago, holding information in short-term memory and releasing it if _______________________________________. 49-6 o To retain knowledge of a name or phone number requires activation of mechanisms of __________ __________________________________________. o If we need to recall the name or number, ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________. When memories are made long-term, the links in the _____________________________ are replaced by more permanent connections within the ____________________________________________. o Some of this consolidation of memory is thought to occur during ______________________. o Repetition is also a factor – “practice makes perfect”, more accurately stated as “practice makes permanent” (so practice it correctly!!) The hippocampus is essential for ________________________________________________________ but not ______________________________________________________. o Individuals who suffer damage to the hippocampus cannot ________________________________ _________________________ but can _______________________________________________ __________________________________________. Transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory is enhanced by ____________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________. Motor skills (“skill memory” such as riding a bike, playing the piano) are usually _________________ _________________________________. Once learned bad habits are hard to break (ex. playing a piece with the wrong fingering technique) *** Both the nervous system and the endocrine system use chemical signaling and chemical messengers (from axons) and the response depends on the receptors mode of action *** THE FOLLOWING IS JUST FOR REFERENCE IN YOUR NOTES BUT WILL NOT BE ON THE TEST AND IS NOT INCLUDED IN THE POWERPOINT: Concept 49.5 Many nervous system disorders can be explained in molecular terms Major research efforts are under way to identify genes that cause or contribute to disorders of the nervous system. Family studies may help scientists distinguish between genetic and environmental variables. Schizophrenia is a severe mental disturbance characterized by psychotic episodes. About 1% of the world’s population suffers from schizophrenia, a severe mental disturbance characterized by psychotic episodes in which patients have a distorted perception of reality. People with schizophrenia typically experience hallucinations and delusions. Depression is a disorder characterized by depressed mood plus abnormalities in sleep, appetite, and energy level. 49-7 Individuals affected by major depressive disorder have periods in which once enjoyable activities provide no pleasure and provoke no interest. o Major depression affects about one in every seven adults at some point, and twice as many women as men. Bipolar disorder involves swings of mood from high to low and affects about 1% of the world’s population. Drug addiction is linked to the brain’s reward system. Drug addiction is a disorder characterized by compulsive consumption of a drug and loss of control in limiting intake. Addictive drugs include stimulants, such as cocaine and amphetamine, and sedatives, such as heroin. All of these drugs, as well as alcohol and nicotine, are addictive for the same reason: Each increases activity of the brain’s reward system, neural circuitry that normally functions in pleasure, motivation, and learning. Alzheimer’s disease is dementia characterized by confusion and memory loss. The incidence of Alzheimer’s disease is age related, rising from about 10% at age 65 to about 35% at age 85. The disease is progressive, with patients gradually becoming less able to function and eventually needing to be dressed, bathed, and fed by others. o Patients also lose their ability to recognize people, including their immediate family, and may treat them with suspicion and hostility. Postmortem examination of the remaining brain tissue reveals two characteristic features—amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Parkinson’s disease is a motor disorder including muscle tremors, poor balance, a flexed posture, and a shuffling gait. Like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease is a progressive brain illness and is more common with advancing age. o The incidence of Parkinson’s disease is about 1% at age 65 and about 5% at age 85. 49-8