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NEUROTRANSMITTERS A NEUROTRANSMITTER is a chemical substance that is used by one neuron to signal another. • Some are made in the cell body while others are made in the neurotransmitter swellings. The impulse is changed from and Electrical Impulse to a Chemical Impulse (Electrochemical Impulses). The molecules of the neurotransmitter diffuse across the gap and attach themselves to SPECIAL RECEPTORS on the membrane of the neuron receiving the impulse. This now causes the electrical impulse to be regenerated. After the neurotransmitter relays it message it is rapidly REMOVED or DESTROYED, thus halting its effect. ENZYMES, taken up again by the axon terminal and recycled, may break down the molecules of the neurotransmitter or they may simply diffuse away. Synapses are the slowest part of the nervous system. • The advantage to having many neurons, with gaps between them, is that we can control and receive information from different parts of the body at different times. They also ensure one-way transmission of impulses in a living person. The number of synapses associated with each neuron varies from 1000 for a cell body of the spinal cord to up to 10,000 for cell bodies in the brain. To Review: The main functions of the synapse are: • 1. To transmit impulses from one neuron to another neuron or to an effector. • 2. To control the direction of the impulse. Impulses can only go one way. The neurotransmitter swellings are only found on the presynaptic side of the synapse. Thus, the impulse can only travel from the presynaptic side to the postsynaptic side. • 3. To prevent over stimulation of effectors. Constant stimulation causes neurotransmitter production to cease. In this way we get used to stimuli such as pain or noise. • 4. Certain chemicals can block the impulse. This is why doctors prescribe certain drugs for pain relief. Specialized Neurotransmitters Dopamine - Serotonin -Norepinephrine GABA – Glutamate-Acetylcholine #1 ACETYLCHOLINE • • Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter discovered and is the major neurotransmitter in the peripheral nervous system (the only other peripheral neurotransmitter being norepinephrine). Acetylcholine is usually (but not always) an excitatory neurotransmitter — in contrast to the monoamine neurotransmitters, which are nearly always (with a few exceptions) inhibitory. There are comparatively few acetylcholine receptors in the brain, but outside the brain acetylcholine is the major neurotransmitter controlling the muscles. Body muscles can be divided into the skeletal muscles system (under voluntary control) and the smooth muscles of the autonomic nervous system (controlling heart, stomach, etc. — not under voluntary control). The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Direct innervation of skeletal muscles is due to acetylcholine, as is the innervation of smooth muscles of the parasympathetic nervous system. Direct innervation of the sympathetic nervous system (except for sweat glands) is due to norepinephrine (or both epinephrine & norepinephrine in the case of the adrenal medulla). • #5 Dopamine is often called the "Feel Good Neurotransmitter! When we have enough Dopamine we have . . . Feelings of pleasure Feelings of attachment/love Sense of altruism (unselfish concern for the welfare of others) Integration of thoughts and feelings ADD/ADHD medications target the Dopamine in our Central Nervous System serving as proof that the medical professionals believe that Dopamine (and the related Neurotransmitter, Norepinephrine) are the reasons for these problems Dopamine Is One Of The Most Important Nutrients Needed By Your Body! • Dopamine, along with Norepinephrine has come to be recognized as playing a large role in attention and focus. For people with ADD/ADHD, psychostimulant medications such as Ritalin/Concerta (methylphenidate), Dexedrine (dextroamphetamine), and Adderall (a racemic mixture of amphetamine salts) are prescribed to help increase levels of norepinephrine and dopamine. When we have enough Dopamine we have . . . • Feelings of pleasure • Feelings of attachment/love • Sense of altruism (unselfish concern for the welfare of others) • Integration of thoughts and feelings When we have Dopamine Deficiencies . . . • Anhedonia (lack of pleasure) • Lack of ability to feel love, sense attachment to another • Lack of remorse about actions • Distractibility #6 Serotonin • When we have enough serotonin, we feel emotionally stable, we can sleep, we can sort out the feelings and determine in a logical manner if there is a threat present. Serotonin . . . How Important Is It? • SEROTONIN: Promotes And Improves Sleep, Improves Self Esteem, Relieves Depression, Diminishes Cravings, Prevents Agitated Depression And Worrying. • Serotonin provides numerous calming and stabilizing actions in the brain and body. When we have enough serotonin, we feel emotionally stable, we can sleep, we can sort out the feelings and determine in a logical manner if there is a threat present. When we are low in serotonin, • we feel immediately irritable and we are overly sensitive to sights and sounds. We have difficulty sleeping and may suffer unexplained outbursts of tears. When we have enough Serotonin, we are . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Hopeful Optimistic Calm Patient Creative Focused Responsive Good Natured In addition, we are . . . Loving and Caring Reflective & Thoughtful Able To Concentrate Able To Think Things Through And we . . . Don't Crave Carbohydrates Sleep Well • Good Dream Recall But when we have a shortage of serotonin, lookout! We are . . . • • • • • • • • Depressed Anxious Irritable Impatient Impulsive Abusive Reactive A Real Pain #2 Norepinephrine • Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter found in the sympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the heart, blood vessels, sweat glands, the large internal organs, and the adrenal medulla in the brain. Norepinephrine (Also Known As Noradrenaline) • Like dopamine, norepinephrine has a stimulating effect, fosters alertness, and plays an important regulatory role in long-term memory and learning. It also protects endorphins from being broken down prematurely. • Optimal levels of this transmitter can stimulate a sense of wellbeing or even create a euphoric effect in stressful situations . . . • Yet excess norepinephrine can fuel the physiological expressions of fear and anxiety, as may be the case for people who suffer from anxiety disorders. • The amino acid tyrosine, found in high concentrations in cheese, is converted by specific reactions into at least two neurotransmitters . . . norepinephrine and dopamine. • Norepinephrine is produced from dopamine, with the help of the amino acids phenylalanine, lysine, and methionine. Vitamins C and B-6, magnesium, and manganese are important cofactors. Norepinephrine Functions in: • • • • • • • Arousal, energy, drive Stimulation Fight or Flight Norepinephrine Deficiencies result in: Lack of energy Lack of motivation First "state" called depression #4 GABA • GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the most important and the abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain (it's actually an amino acid classified as a neurotransmitter). What Is Gaba? • GABA helps induce relaxation and sleep. • It also acts as a "balancer" for the brain where excitation of the brain is balanced with inhibition. • Other studies have shown that GABA increases the body's sleeping cycle and patients reported much more vivid dreams. Getting a good night's sleep and obtaining more rest can lead to more energy throughout the day. • GABA also has a slightly sedative effect, which makes it ideal to take before going to bed. #3 GLUTAMATE • Glutamate is the most common neurotransmitter in the brain. It is always excitatory, usually due to simple receptors that increase the flow of positive ions by opening ion-channels.