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Human Anatomy and Physiology, Nervous System and Special Senses ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Structural Classification 1. Distinguish the structures and functions of the CNS and PNS. CNS: ________ and spinal cord; integration and ________________ PNS: sensory (_______________) and _________ (efferent) Functional Classification 2. Describe the subdivisions of the motor component of the PNS. _____________: innervates ________________ muscles Autonomic Regulates activity of __________, cardiac, glands Sympathetic NS (_________) and parasympathetic NS (relaxation) NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Supporting Cells 3. Contrast the functions of the four major types of glial cells. Astrocytes: anchor, regulate exchange, control chemical environment _______________: act as phagocytes Ependymal cells: _______________ lining, makes CSF __________________________-: insulate multiple neurons Neurons Anatomy 4. Contrast the structures and functions of dendrites and axons. Structure Dendrites: __________, short, _____________ Axons: single, ___________, uniform diameter Function Dendrites conduct impulses _____________ the cell body Axons _________________ and conduct impulses away from the cell body 5. Describe the function of the synapse. Axon carries the _________________ to axonal terminals __________________________ are released NTs may _______ to and stimulate the structure across the cleft 6. List functions of the myelin sheath. _______________________ impulses Protects and _____________________ the fiber 7. Describe the molecular basis for the symptoms of multiple sclerosis. ______________________ attack on myelin Impulses short-circuit causing disability Classification 8. Name the three functional classes of neurons and give an example of each. _____________ or afferent; skin receptors Motor or _______________; motor neurons to skeletal muscles Association or ___________________________; connect sensory and motor in CNS; = 99% of neurons 9. Rationalize the structures of pain, deep pressure, and stretch receptors. ________: branched, uncovered near the surface for sensitivity Deep pressure = ________________________________: layered for reduced sensitivity _______________: branched and attached along tendon to sense changes in length Physiology Nerve Impulses 10. How is the resting membrane potential established? __________________ __________________________________ 11. What stimuli can cause the generation of a neuronal action potential? ___________ on an eye receptor Sound vibrations on a ear receptor Pressure on a __________________ receptor Neurotransmitters from __________________________ 12. Order the movements of ions involved in the generation and propagation of action potentials. ______ moves in = ______________________ ______ moves out = repolarization 13. Describe saltatory conduction. Why is it faster than direct conduction? Current passes ______________ of the neurons, membrane depolarizes only at the _____________ Less ion movement in and out makes it faster, myelin also increases the fiber _________, thereby reducing resistance 14. Order the six events accounting for transmission across a chemical synapse. _______________________ arrives NT vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane NT _______________ across cleft NT binds to receptor on receiving cell Ion channel __________ Ion channel ______________ Reflexes 15. Contrast the adaptive functions of somatic and autonomic reflexes. Somatic __________________ movement and protect from damage Autonomic regulate _________________________ 16. List the basic elements of a reflex arc in the order they operate. ______________, sensory neuron, __________________ center, motor neuron, effector CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Functional Anatomy of the Brain 17. Contrast the functions of the cerebral lobes, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum. Cerebral Hemispheres ____________: higher intellectual and voluntary motor functions Parietal: somatic sensory and ___________________ functions Occipital: _______________ ____________________: auditory and olfactory Diencephalon Sensory _______________, emotions, drives, hormonal regulation Brain Stem Control of _________________________ like breathing and blood pressure Cerebellum Muscle coordination, ________________ and equilibrium Protection of the Central Nervous System 18. Contrast the protective functions of the meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood-brain barrier. Meninges Membranes protect from ___________________ and leakage Cerebrospinal Fluid __________________ for filtration, liquid cushion against trauma The Blood-Brain Barrier Keeps ___________________ chemicals out of the brain Brain Dysfunctions 19. Distinguish the causes and symptoms of the major traumatic and degenerative brain dysfunctions. Traumatic Brain Injuries Concussion: trauma; dizzy, unconscious, no permanent injury Brain contusion: trauma; ________________________, coma, permanent damage _______________________ accident: vessel blocked or ruptured; __________________________ of motor/cognitive function Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's - The Terrible Three Alzheimer's: slow ______________ accumulation with atrophy; progressive loss of memory and motor function Parkinson's: degeneration of ________________-releasing neurons; tremors and loss of motor function Huntington's: ____________________ degeneration; jerky movements followed by mental deterioration Spinal Cord Introduction 20. Correlate the function of the dorsal and ventral horns of spinal cord gray matter and dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal nerve. ______________ horn contains interneurons, dorsal root delivers _________________ fibers Ventral horn contains _______________ neuron cell bodies, ventral roots deliver motor axons PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Cranial Nerves 21. Contrast the general functions of cranial and spinal nerves. _______________ Afferents from major ___________________________ _____________ motor neurons to the head and neck Vagus carries ________________________________ neurons Spinal: somatic and autonomic sensory and motor fibers except as above Autonomic Nervous System Comparison of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems 22. Differentiate the somatic and autonomic nervous systems with respect to effectors, efferent pathways, and neurotransmitters. Somatic Effectors: __________________________ Pathways: motor neuron cell bodies _______________, axons go all the way NT: ______ only Autonomic Effectors: smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, ____________ Pathways: 2 motor neurons connected in a ganglion NT: ACh and ________________ and norepinephrine Autonomic Functioning 23. Contrast the actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS. Sympathetic "Flight-or-fight", exercise, ____________________ Raises heart and respiratory rate, blood pressure, blood glucose Inhibits _________________________ ______________ pupils ______________________________ "Unwind" and conserve energy "Resting and _________________" _____________ heart and respiratory rate, blood pressure, blood glucose _________________ digestive system _______________________________ DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 24. Describe birth defects affecting the nervous system. Cerebral palsy __________________________ Spastic, __________________, retardation, _______________________ Anencephaly No _________________ development No ___________________________ or voluntary activities Spina ________________ Incomplete formation of __________________________ Cosmetic to complete functional impairment of the lower body 25. List age-related problems other than strokes and Alzheimer's associated with the degeneration of the nervous system. Sympathetic reflexes ______________, blood pressure ____________ problems Circulatory problems, brain starvation, ___________________ Human Anatomy and Physiology, Special Senses THE EYE AND VISION Anatomy of the Eye External and Accessory Structures 26. Identify the accessory structures of the eye and list the functions of each. Eyelids, ____________________, and conjunctiva protect Lacrimal apparatus ____________, lubricates, and fights infection ___________________ eye muscles point Internal Structures: The Eyeball 27. Name the eye tunics and note the major functions of each. ____________ Thick, white sclera protects Anterior sclera or _____________ refracts and is sensitive Black __________________ reduces light scattering ________________ contains rod and cone photoreceptors 28. Describe the anatomical source of the apparent lateral blind spot in our field of vision. Optic nerve exits through the retina at the ___________________ 29. Explain the difference in rod and cone function and arrangement across the retina. Rods sense ________ in ______ light at the periphery ____________ sense colors and detail at the _________________ 30. Describe the origin and diagnosis of glaucoma. Blocked drainage of the ________________________; interocular pressure rises Diagnosed using a tonometer Visual Pigments - The Actual Photoreceptors 31. Compare and contrast the structures of rods and cones. Similarities Both are short ________________________ stuck tip down into the choroid _______________ <--> ________________________ Differences ______________________ _______________ Pathway of Light through the Eye and Light Refraction Introduction 32. Explain the physical basis of the focusing function of the eye. Cornea, humors, and lens _________________ Refraction is the _________________ of light as it passes between substances of different ____________________ Curved lenses ____________ and __________________ light If I Can't See Things Far Away, Am I Nearsighted or Farsighted? 33. Contrast myopia and hyperopia and their corrections. Myopia: ______sighted, eyeball too long, concave lenses required Hyperopia: farsighted, eyeball too ______, convex lenses required Visual Fields and Visual Pathways to the Brain 34. Contrast the visual pathways carried by the optic nerves and optic tracts. Optic nerves carry pathways from individual eyes Optic tracts carry _________________________ Eye Reflexes 35. Contrast the adaptive significance of the photopupillary and accommodation pupillary reflexes. ________________________ protects the retina from bright light _______________________ eliminates less accurate focusing of the lens edges for close viewing THE EAR: HEARING AND BALANCE Introduction 36. Identify the structures of the external, middle, and internal ear, and list the functions of each. Anatomy of the Ear External Ear ___________; collects sound waves Cerumen; earwax protects and inhibits __________________________ Tympanic membrane; transmits __________________ to the ossicles Middle Ear __________________ or eustachian tube; equalizes pressure across the tympanic membrane _____________________; transmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear Internal Ear ________________; coiled, tapered space containing the _____________________________________ for hearing Vestibule; contains the mechanoreceptors for ___________ equilibrium Semicircular canals; contains the mechanoreceptors for ______________ equilibrium Mechanisms of Equilibrium Introduction 37. Distinguish the senses of static and dynamic equilibrium. Static equilibrium senses the direction of the pull of gravity Dynamic senses the direction of motion on __________________ 38. Compare and contrast the sensation mechanisms for static and dynamic equilibrium. Both utilize _________________ embedded in a gelatinous matrix Static sensation registers the gravitational pull on otoliths Dynamic sensation registers the angular or rotary motion of the fluid in the _________________________________ Mechanism of Hearing 39. Differentiate the sensation mechanism for low-pitch and high-pitch sounds. High-pitch are sensed at the ________________, wide end of the cochlea Low at the distal, narrow end Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits 40. Differentiate conduction and sensorial deafness and list causes of each. _______________________ Cochlea and ______________ OK, no vibrations getting through Blocked canal, _______________, ruptured eardrum, otitis media Sensorineural ___________________________ or nerve damage Extended _____________________, infection, tumors, congenital CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL AND TASTE Introduction 41. Contrast the varieties of taste and olfactory receptors. Five types for taste: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, ________________ Much more variety for _________________ Olfactory Receptors and the Sense of Smell 42. Trace the olfactory afferent pathway. ________________ olfactory receptor cells About 20 olfactory nerves through the _________________ plate Olfactory bulb Olfactory ____________ 43. Account for the long-lasting nature of olfactory impressions. Olfactory pathways are tied to the _____________________ Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste 44. Contrast the structures and functions of lingual papillae. Filiform: small, widely-distributed, ____________________________ __________________: medium, scattered, rounded, with taste buds Circumvallate: large (3mm) with _____________________ 45. Identify the chemical specificities of the five major taste buds. Sweet: _____________, saccharine, some amino acids, -OH? Sour: ____ Bitter: ________________ Salty: __________________ Umami: __________________ 46. List causes of anosmias. ______________________, inflammation, aging, ________ deficiency DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE SPECIAL SENSES 47. Describe congenital eye problems. _______________: crossed eyes Infections, especially ______________, can cause blindness ___________________ causes conjunctivitis 48. Trace the development of normal vision. At birth: ________________, no color, one eye at a time 5 months: 20/200, good color 5 years: _______________ with depth 40 years: ___________________