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CHAPTER 48
NEURONS, SYNAPSES, AND SIGNALING
Learning objectives:
An Overview of Nervous Systems
1. Name the three stages in the processing of information by nervous systems.
2. Distinguish among sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.
3. List and describe the major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each.
4. Describe the function of glia.
The Nature of Nerve Signals
5. Define a membrane potential and a resting potential.
6. Describe the factors that contribute to a membrane potential.
7. Explain why the membrane potential of a resting neuron is typically between -60 and
-80 mV.
8. Explain the role of the sodium-potassium pump in maintaining the resting potential.
9. Explain why the electrical potential across the membrane prevents the build-up of
negative charge from increasing indefinitely.
10. Explain how the Nernst equation may be used to calculate EK, the equilibrium
potential for K+.
11. Distinguish between gated and ungated ion channels.
12. Describe the characteristics of an action potential. Explain the role of voltage-gated
ion channels in this process.
13. Define the refractory period.
14. Explain how an action potential is propagated along an axon.
15. Explain why the action potential cannot travel back toward the cell body.
16. Describe the factors that affect the speed of action potentials along an axon and
describe adaptations that increase the speed of propagation. Describe saltatory
conduction.
The Synapse
17. Distinguish between an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse.
18. Describe the structures of a chemical synapse and the events that lead to the release
of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
19. Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic
potentials (IPSP) affect the postsynaptic membrane potential.
20. Explain this statement: “Unlike action potentials, which are all-or-none events,
postsynaptic potentials are graded.”
21. Define summation and distinguish between temporal and spatial summation. Explain
how summation applies to EPSPs and IPSPs.
22. Explain the integrative role of the axon hillock.
23. Describe the role of signal transduction pathways in indirect synaptic transmission.
24. Describe the specific properties of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Explain the
link between botulism and acetylcholine.
25. Name four biogenic amines. Briefly describe the role of each molecule in the
nervous system.
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26. Identify and describe the functions of two amino acids and several neuropeptides
that work as neurotransmitters.
27. Explain how endorphins function as natural analgesics.
28. Describe the roles of nitric oxide and carbon monoxide as local regulators.
CHAPTER 49
NERVOUS SYSTEMS
Learning objectives:
Vertebrate Nervous Systems
1. Compare and contrast the nervous systems of the following animals and explain how
variations in design and complexity relate to their phylogeny, natural history, and
habitat: hydra, sea star, planarian, nematode, clam, squid, and vertebrate.
2. Compare the structures and functions of the central nervous system and peripheral
nervous system.
3. Explain how the spinal cord produces reflex movement.
4. Distinguish between the white and gray matter of the central nervous system.
5. List the types of glia and their functions.
6. Distinguish between the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
The Vertebrate Brain
7. Describe the embryonic development of the vertebrate brain.
8. Describe the structures and functions of the following brain regions: medulla
oblongata, pons, midbrain, cerebellum, thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus, and
cerebrum.
9. Describe the specific functions of the reticular system.
10. Explain how the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) function as a mammalian biological
clock.
11. Distinguish between the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum.
12. Compare the organization of the human and avian pallium.
The Cerebral Cortex
13. Describe the specific functions of the brain regions associated with language, speech,
emotions, memory, and learning.
14. Describe and explain the effect of surgical severing of the human corpus callosum.
15. Describe our current understanding of human consciousness.
16. Describe the effect of damage to the hippocampus on formation and retrieval of
short term and long term memories.
17. Explain the possible role of long-term potentiation in memory storage and learning
in the vertebrate brain.
Nervous System Disorders
18. Describe the evidence that neuronal pathways with dopamine neurotransmitters are
affected by schizophrenia.
19. Distinguish between bipolar disorder and major depression.
20. Explain how drug addiction affects the brain reward system.
21. Describe the symptoms and brain pathology that characterize Alzheimer’s disease.
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22. Explain the cause of Parkinson’s disease.
23. Explain how research on stem cells and neural development may lead to new
treatments for brain injuries and disease.
CHAPTER 50
SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISMS
Learning objectives
Introduction to Sensory Reception
1. Differentiate between sensation and perception.
2. Describe the four general functions of receptor cells as they convert energy stimuli into
changes in membrane potentials and then transmit signals to the central nervous system.
3. Distinguish between sensory transduction and receptor potential.
4. Since all action potentials are the same, explain how the brain distinguishes between
different sensory stimuli.
5. Describe how sensory stimulus energy may be amplified during transduction.
6. Explain the importance of sensory adaptation.
7. List the five categories of sensory receptors and explain the energy transduced by each
type.
Hearing and Equilibrium
8. Explain the role of mechanoreceptors in hearing and balance.
9. Describe the structure and function of invertebrate statocysts.
10. Explain how insects may detect sound.
11. Refer to a diagram of the human ear and give the function of each structure.
12. Explain how the mammalian ear functions as a hearing organ.
13. Describe how the ear conveys information about volume and pitch of sound to the
brain.
14. Explain how the mammalian ear functions to maintain body balance and equilibrium.
15. Describe the hearing and equilibrium systems of nonmammalian vertebrates.
Chemoreception: Taste and Smell
16. Distinguish between tastants and odorants.
17. Explain how the chemoreceptors involved with taste function in insects and humans.
18. Distinguish between GPCR and TRP receptor proteins.
19. Describe what happens after an odorant binds to an odorant receptor on the plasma
membrane of the olfactory cilia.
20. Explain the basis of the sensory discrimination of human smell.
Photoreceptors and Vision
21. Compare the structure and processing of light by the ocelli of Planaria, the compound
eye of insects, and the single-lens eyes of molluscs.
22. Refer to a diagram of the vertebrate eye to identify and give the function of each
structure.
23. Describe the functions of the rod cells and cone cells of the vertebrate eye.
24. Explain and compare how the rods and cones of the retina transduce stimuli into action
potentials.
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25. Explain how the retina assists the cerebral cortex in the processing of visual
information.
26. Define the term receptive field. Refer to this concept in explaining why visual acuity is
highest in the fovea.
Muscle Function
27. Using a diagram, identify the components of a skeletal muscle cell.
28. Explain the sliding-filament model of muscle contraction.
29. Name and briefly describe the molecules that store energy for continued muscle
contraction.
30. Explain how muscle contraction is controlled.
31. Explain how the nervous system produces graded contraction of whole muscles.
32. Distinguish between oxidative and glycolytic muscle fibers.
33. Explain the adaptive advantages of slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibers.
34. Distinguish among skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
Movement and Locomotion
35. Describe the functions of a skeleton.
36. Explain how a skeleton combines with an antagonistic muscle arrangement to provide a
mechanism for movement.
37. Describe how hydrostatic skeletons function. Explain why they are not found in large
terrestrial organisms.
38. Distinguish between an exoskeleton and an endoskeleton.
39. Explain how the structure of the arthropod exoskeleton provides both strength and
flexibility.
40. Explain how body proportions and posture affect physical support on land.
41. Describe the constraints associated with moving in or on water, land, and air.
42. Discuss the factors that affect the energy cost of locomotion.
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