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Altered States of Consciousness: An Exploration into the Effects of Meditation on the Brain Cheryl Fracasso Walden University BioPsychology 6225 Winter 2006-2007 1 ABSTRACT This research paper is going to examine the biopsychological effects of meditation on the brain. Specifically, several studies from electroencephalographic (EEG) studies will be critically evaluated which suggests meditation increases alpha, theta, delta, and gamma wave power activity; followed by examining several studies which utilize neuroimaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Due to the five “lifestyle” diseases which include coronary heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, diabetes, and stroke that have been associated with stress, exploring meditation as a preventive treatment method is of critical importance with numerous implications for future research. Overall, it is the hypothesis of this paper that meditation may very well prove to be a cost-effective and efficient method to reduce stress, while improving overall health and well-being in this fast-paced society. 2 INTRODUCTION Exploring meditation techniques which may be implemented as an effective stress management tool is an important topic for researchers to critically evaluate since research has repeatedly shown that stress can significantly impact emotional and physical wellbeing. For example, Weiten (2006) discusses how strong emotional arousal can interfere with effectively coping with stress by reducing one’s ability to focus attention, reducing memory retrieval, in addition to impairing the ability to make decisions. Physiological effects of chronic stress can have a detrimental effect on health by lowering the immune system and opening the door for the big five “lifestyle diseases” which include coronary heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, diabetes, and stroke (Lloyd & Foster, 2006; Weiten, 2006). A good example of the effects of stress is a recent study conducted by Masthoff and colleagues (2006) who examined 410 psychiatric outpatients to examine the effect of stress after controlling for their psychiatric diagnosis and found that stress was significantly correlated to their quality of life. In fact, because many studies have linked the effects of stress to mental and physical well-being, Masthoff and colleagues (2006) suggest that stress should be added to the DSM-IV on a separate axis so that it can be professionally recognized as a dehabilitating disorder that deserves critical evaluation. Accordingly, this paper will critically evaluate meditation as a viable option for stress management which could be implemented as a preventive measure to the later onset of the “big five” lifestyle diseases associated with chronic stress (Lloyd & Foster, 2006). 3 What is Meditation? There are various types of meditation which fall into two distinct categories known as either mindfulness meditation techniques which incorporate present moment awareness, compared to more concentrative meditation methods which emphasize transcending present moment awareness (Cahn & Polich, 2006). This paper will focus on eastern methods which utilize concentrative meditation techniques which involve focusing on specific sensory sensations such as breathing, or incorporating visual and auditory imagery to transcend “ordinary” awareness of the five senses (Cahn & Polich, 2006). Specifically, certain forms of Yogic and Buddhist Samatha meditation focus solely on breathing, while another form of meditation referred to as transcendental meditation incorporates the use of a mantra which is a special “word” that is repeatedly thought about with the goal of interrupting the chaotic flow of thoughts (Cahn & Polich, 2006). Overall, the goal of concentrative meditation methods is to quite the mind by transcending the constant flow of thoughts by focusing attention on either breathing, visualization, or a mantra—in order to eventually reach a state of transcendent awareness (Cahn & Polich, 2006). Therefore, an operational definition of meditation proposed by Arias and colleagues (2006) suggests “thoughtless awareness” is achieved by either focusing attention solely on the present moment through breathing, muscle relaxation, guided imagery, a mantra, or any other number of methods designed to focus present moment attention; while directing attention away from worrying about the future or dwelling on the past. Accordingly, this self-regulated method of deep relaxation involves sustained attention while the mind, body, and spirit achieve a state of inner harmony beyond the 4 usual realm of our sensory awareness, into some transcendent realms of consciousness attained by certain yogic masters and long-term meditators which will be critically evaluated in this paper (Arias et al, 2006). Overall, this paper will explore electroencephalographic (EEG) studies which examine the role of theta, alpha, and gamma waves during meditative states (Shreckenberger et al. 2004); along with neuroimaging studies from PET and fMRI observations which indicate regions of the thalamus, hippocampus, cortex, and occipital and parietal lobes show increased activity during meditative states (Orme-Johnson et al., 2006). Additionally, this paper will explore Kjaer and colleagues’ (2002) hypothesis that increased amounts of dopamine may be released during meditative states which may account for incredible amounts of pain control seen by long-term meditators, concluded by critically evaluating the longterm effects of meditation and implications for future research. DISCUSSION EEG Studies Several electroencephalographic (EEG) studies have been conducted on participants during a meditative state of awareness to observe differences in theta, alpha, delta and gamma waves (Cahn & Polich, 2006). An EEG is a measurement used by researchers to examine the overall electrical activity of the brain (Pinel, 2006). EEG activity is measured by placing various small electrodes throughout various regions of the scalp which measures action and postsynoptic potentials, in addition to measuring electrical signals from the muscles, blood, eyes, and the skin (Pinel, 2006). Specifically, EEG measures are used to measure wave forms associated with various states of 5 consciousness (Pinel, 2006). For example, alpha waves are high-amplitude waves which are most associated with a relaxed state of wakefulness, while delta waves are the slowest and largest waves associated with deep states of relaxation and sleep (Pinel, 2006). With that being said, several studies report alterations in these waves and Andresen (2000) reports that primary findings indicate meditative states induce increased theta and alpha wave band power, while decreasing theta and alpha wave frequency. Shreckenberger and colleagues (2004) have also noted alpha wave band power increases, in addition to noting an increased amount of thalamic activity while participants are in a meditative state, compared to the control subjects. Furthermore, Shreckenberger and colleagues (2004) also note that alpha band power waves are stronger in meditators at rest, as compared to nonmeditators who had no previous experience with meditation. However, Shreckenberger and colleagues (2004) note that this increased alpha activity observed could be associated more with relaxation, rather than a specific result of meditation since Aftanas and Golocheikine (2001) point out that not all studies have shown an increased alpha wave activity in meditators. Due to inconsistent findings, Yamamoto and colleagues (2006) sought to explore the source of increased alpha activity utilizing magnetoencephalologrophy (MEG) and EEG technology in 8 meditators who were using transcendental meditation (TM) techniques. Yamamomto and colleagues (2006) found increased alpha activity specifically in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPC) and the anterior cigulate (AC) cortex regions of the brain while participants utilized methods from transcendental meditation (TM). Consequently, Yamamoto and colleagues (2006) suggest that the increased alpha wave activity observed in the MPF and AC cortex regions of the brain may play a pivotal 6 role in the increased activity in the brain observed during states of transcendental meditation (TM). Aftanas and Golocheikine (2005) lend support to this view in their comparison of long-term meditators and non-meditators which also showed increased alpha and theta wave activity recordings on EEG measurements, in addition to a slower baseline EEG alpha and theta wave frequency found in long-term meditators as compared to the non-meditator controls. Lutz and colleagues (2004) also suggest that gamma waves play an important role in altered states of consciousness observed during meditative states. For example, Lutz and colleagues (2004) compared Tibetan Buddhist meditators with novice meditators who were taught three separate meditative techniques for one week based on concentrating on one object, focusing attention without the presence of an object, and focusing on a state of “nonreferrential” love and feelings of compassion. Lutz and colleagues (2004) found that both the Tibetan Buddhist meditators and novice meditators showed a large increase in gamma wave power during states of meditation, with the Tibetan Buddhist monks showing slightly higher increases in gamma wave power. Carter and colleagues (2005) also found similar results in their study which compared Tibetan Buddhist meditators with a group of controls who had no previous experience with meditation. Additionally, Carter and colleagues (2005) also note that the monks showed a higher gamma wave power at baseline compared to theta power at baseline, and noted significant increases in gamma activity while the monks were meditating compared to the control group. In a more recent study, Peper and colleagues (2006) examined pain control utilizing QEEG observations of a Yogi receiving a tongue piercing while in a meditative 7 state to assess levels of pain control. Peper and colleagues (2006) note that during baseline, the Yogi was able to lower his overall brain activity to a resting state marked by slow delta waves. While in the meditative state, the Yogi showed a significant increase in slow delta wave activity which is similar to individuals who are under analgesia (Peper et al., 2006). Overall, Peper and colleagues (2006) suggest further studies need to be conducted on individuals who show exceptional self-regulation as observed in the Yogi master so that pain control can be taught to other individuals utilizing these techniques. Neuroimaging Studies: PET and fMRI Observations Neuroimaging studies utilizing positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have also been conducted on meditators while in a meditative state. The main purpose of PET scan imaging is to observe the actual brain activity going on within the brain by injecting a radioactive substance called 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) into the participants’ carotid artery (Pinel, 2006). Due to 2-DG’s similarity to glucose which is the brain’s primary source of energy, 2-DG accumulates within active neurons and shows the levels of radioactivity in whatever part of the brain is being most stimulated (Pinel, 2006). Accordingly, PET scans show the most active parts of the brain that are utilized during specific activities such as meditation as will be observed in this paper. On the other hand, fMRI scans also measure the level of brain activity going on in specific regions by recording increases in oxygen flow within the blood (Pinel, 2006). However, Pinel (2006) points out that fMRI images have some advantages over PET scan imaging because they do not require the injection of any substance into the participant; fMRI’s provide both brain structure and brain activity within the same image; fMRI’s 8 recording of spacial resolution is clearer; and fMRI’s can produce three-dimensional images that records activity throughout the brain. Accordingly, Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) conducted a study on longterm TM meditators in comparison to control participants to assess the effect of pain utilizing fMRI observations while participants were in a meditative state. Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) report that TM meditators showed decreased voxels by 40-50% within the thalamus and various brain regions associated with pain responses, compared to the control subjects. Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) then taught the control subjects TM techniques for a five month period to assess whether their response to pain showed lower voxels in various regions of the brain. Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) report that after the control subjects had practiced TM techniques for five months that they also showed decreased voxels by 40-50% in their response to pain within the thalamus and prefrontal cortex regions of the brain. Consequently, Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) suggest that the long-term effects of TM techniques may reduce the affective areas of the brain that are associated with responses to pain. In the same vein, studies have also been conducted utilizing hypnosis to examine the brain’s response to pain in this altered state of consciousness. Faymonville (2006) conducted a study on participants under hypnosis using a PET scan image and found that hypnosis reduced participants’ perception of pain by approximately 50%. Faymonville (2006) also notes that several cortical areas were activated during this state of hypnosis which includes both the occipital and parietal lobes, the precentral, premotor, and ventrolateral prefrontal regions of the brain, in addition to the anterior cingulated cortices. 9 Other PET scan observations of meditators in a meditative state observed by Kahana, Seelig, and Madsen (2001) note that increased hippocampal activity may be the key factor which underlies the increased theta activity observed in meditators as discussed above; while Kjaer and colleagues (2002) hypothesize that increased amounts of dopamine may be released during meditative states which results in a loss of executive control of certain regions within the brain. Kjaer and colleagues (2002) suggest that support for the dopamine hypothesis is found in observations that dopaminergic changes are often associated with decreases in overall striatal activity—however, further research is needed to evaluate these theories. Effects of Meditation Nielsen and Kaszniak (2006) conducted a study of long-term meditators and nonmeditators to assess the long-term effects of meditation. Nielsen and Kaszniak (2006) assessed 11 participants who were long-term meditators, and 17 control subjects who had never meditated before but were taught simple TM techniques. Nielsen and Kaszniak (2006) report that long-term meditators showed increased levels of emotional control, a lower heart-beat associated with more even-keel levels of awareness, and lower levels of skin conductance response associated with levels of arousal often set off by anxiety, or anxiety-provoking stimuli. In the same vein, Cahn and Polich (2006) note several effects of long-term meditation which include a deepened state of calmness, heightened states of awareness of various sensory fields such as vision, hearing, and thinking more “clearly”; in addition to a refreshed view of the self in relation to how experience relates to individual thoughts and feelings (Cahn & Polich, 2006). Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) also note that 10 participants who had been long-term TM meditators showed increased amounts of pain control marked by higher levels of overall self-regulation associated with emotional and physical pain control. CONCLUSIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH In conclusion, meditation is showing promising results as an alternative form of treatment for stress management aimed at reducing the “big five” lifestyle diseases which consist of coronary heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, diabetes, and stroke (Lloyd & Foster, 2006); in addition to eventually being used for pain control as demonstrated by Peper and colleagues’ (2006) study of the Yogi who was able to induce a meditative state associated with increased delta waves. However, as Peper and colleagues (2006) point out, this study was only conducted on one Yogi master and further studies are needed to assess whether these techniques can be taught to others, in addition to assessing the validity of these preliminary results. Further implications include the long-term effects of meditation which have been shown to increase a sense of inner calmness and peace, while lowering physiological responses associated with acute and chronic states of stress (Nielsen & Kaszniak, 2006). Nielsen and Kaszniak (2006) point out that further longitudinal studies are needed to accurately assess whether these findings are both consistent and valid in a larger sample size. Other promising results suggest that long-term meditators have also shown increased levels of emotional control marked by lower levels of anxiety (Nielsen & Kaszniak, 2006), in addition to deepened states of calmness and heightened states of 11 awareness which increase sensory perceptions associated with vision, hearing, and the ability to think more clearly (Cahn & Polich, 2006). EEG studies have also shown an increased amount of theta and alpha wave power activity in meditators while in a meditative state (Andresen, 2000; Cahn & Polich, 2006), while Yamamoto and colleagues (2006) also note this increased alpha wave power activity was associated with increased activity in the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulated cortex regions of the brain. Further studies conducted by Lutz and colleagues (2004) and Carter and colleagues (2005) also note that gamma waves may play an important role in these induced states of altered consciousness found in subjects while in a meditative state; while Kahana, Seelig, and Madsen (2001) hypothesize that increased hippocampal activity may play a key role in regulating the increased amounts of theta waves observed in meditators while in a meditative state. However, further studies are needed to assess the exact role that alpha, theta, delta, and gamma waves may play in these induced states of consciousness in reference to particular regions within the brain. Particularly exciting is neuroimaging studies which implicate a decrease in voxels by 40-50% within the thalamus and various other regions of the brain in participants under a meditative state to assess pain control (Orme-Johnson et al., 2006). As OrmeJohnson and colleagues (2006) point out, further research is needed to assess to long-term effects of meditation for the use of pain control in subjects who are not Yogi masters to evaluate whether meditation is a viable alternative method for pain control in the future. Overall, the use of meditation as a viable treatment option for stress management, pain control, in addition to the treatment of several disorders such as anxiety and 12 depression, may very well prove to be an efficient and cost-effective method to improve health and prevent the onset of many of the “lifestyle” diseases associated with stress. 13 References Aftanas, L. I., & Golocheikine, S. A. (2001). Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: High resolution EEG investigation of meditation. Neuroscience Letters, 310, pp. 57-60. Andresen, J. (2000). Meditation meets behavioral medicine: The story of experimental research on meditation. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7, pp. 17-73. Arias, A., J., Steinberg, K., Banga, A., & Trestman, R. L. (2006). Systematic review of the efficacy of mediation techniques as treatments for medical illness. 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