Download Final Paper Outline: Effects of Meditation on the Brain

Altered States of Consciousness: An Exploration into the Effects of Meditation on
the Brain
Cheryl Fracasso
Walden University
BioPsychology 6225
Winter 2006-2007
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ABSTRACT
This research paper is going to examine the biopsychological effects of
meditation on the brain. Specifically, several studies from electroencephalographic
(EEG) studies will be critically evaluated which suggests meditation increases alpha,
theta, delta, and gamma wave power activity; followed by examining several studies
which utilize neuroimaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Due to the five “lifestyle” diseases which
include coronary heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder,
diabetes, and stroke that have been associated with stress, exploring meditation as a
preventive treatment method is of critical importance with numerous implications for
future research. Overall, it is the hypothesis of this paper that meditation may very well
prove to be a cost-effective and efficient method to reduce stress, while improving overall
health and well-being in this fast-paced society.
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INTRODUCTION
Exploring meditation techniques which may be implemented as an effective stress
management tool is an important topic for researchers to critically evaluate since research
has repeatedly shown that stress can significantly impact emotional and physical wellbeing. For example, Weiten (2006) discusses how strong emotional arousal can interfere
with effectively coping with stress by reducing one’s ability to focus attention, reducing
memory retrieval, in addition to impairing the ability to make decisions. Physiological
effects of chronic stress can have a detrimental effect on health by lowering the immune
system and opening the door for the big five “lifestyle diseases” which include coronary
heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, diabetes, and stroke
(Lloyd & Foster, 2006; Weiten, 2006). A good example of the effects of stress is a recent
study conducted by Masthoff and colleagues (2006) who examined 410 psychiatric
outpatients to examine the effect of stress after controlling for their psychiatric diagnosis
and found that stress was significantly correlated to their quality of life. In fact, because
many studies have linked the effects of stress to mental and physical well-being,
Masthoff and colleagues (2006) suggest that stress should be added to the DSM-IV on a
separate axis so that it can be professionally recognized as a dehabilitating disorder that
deserves critical evaluation. Accordingly, this paper will critically evaluate meditation as
a viable option for stress management which could be implemented as a preventive
measure to the later onset of the “big five” lifestyle diseases associated with chronic
stress (Lloyd & Foster, 2006).
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What is Meditation?
There are various types of meditation which fall into two distinct categories
known as either mindfulness meditation techniques which incorporate present moment
awareness, compared to more concentrative meditation methods which emphasize
transcending present moment awareness (Cahn & Polich, 2006). This paper will focus on
eastern methods which utilize concentrative meditation techniques which involve
focusing on specific sensory sensations such as breathing, or incorporating visual and
auditory imagery to transcend “ordinary” awareness of the five senses (Cahn & Polich,
2006). Specifically, certain forms of Yogic and Buddhist Samatha meditation focus solely
on breathing, while another form of meditation referred to as transcendental meditation
incorporates the use of a mantra which is a special “word” that is repeatedly thought
about with the goal of interrupting the chaotic flow of thoughts (Cahn & Polich, 2006).
Overall, the goal of concentrative meditation methods is to quite the mind by
transcending the constant flow of thoughts by focusing attention on either breathing,
visualization, or a mantra—in order to eventually reach a state of transcendent awareness
(Cahn & Polich, 2006).
Therefore, an operational definition of meditation proposed by Arias and
colleagues (2006) suggests “thoughtless awareness” is achieved by either focusing
attention solely on the present moment through breathing, muscle relaxation, guided
imagery, a mantra, or any other number of methods designed to focus present moment
attention; while directing attention away from worrying about the future or dwelling on
the past. Accordingly, this self-regulated method of deep relaxation involves sustained
attention while the mind, body, and spirit achieve a state of inner harmony beyond the
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usual realm of our sensory awareness, into some transcendent realms of consciousness
attained by certain yogic masters and long-term meditators which will be critically
evaluated in this paper (Arias et al, 2006). Overall, this paper will explore
electroencephalographic (EEG) studies which examine the role of theta, alpha, and
gamma waves during meditative states (Shreckenberger et al. 2004); along with
neuroimaging studies from PET and fMRI observations which indicate regions of the
thalamus, hippocampus, cortex, and occipital and parietal lobes show increased activity
during meditative states (Orme-Johnson et al., 2006). Additionally, this paper will
explore Kjaer and colleagues’ (2002) hypothesis that increased amounts of dopamine
may be released during meditative states which may account for incredible amounts of
pain control seen by long-term meditators, concluded by critically evaluating the longterm effects of meditation and implications for future research.
DISCUSSION
EEG Studies
Several electroencephalographic (EEG) studies have been conducted on
participants during a meditative state of awareness to observe differences in theta, alpha,
delta and gamma waves (Cahn & Polich, 2006). An EEG is a measurement used by
researchers to examine the overall electrical activity of the brain (Pinel, 2006). EEG
activity is measured by placing various small electrodes throughout various regions of the
scalp which measures action and postsynoptic potentials, in addition to measuring
electrical signals from the muscles, blood, eyes, and the skin (Pinel, 2006). Specifically,
EEG measures are used to measure wave forms associated with various states of
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consciousness (Pinel, 2006). For example, alpha waves are high-amplitude waves which
are most associated with a relaxed state of wakefulness, while delta waves are the slowest
and largest waves associated with deep states of relaxation and sleep (Pinel, 2006).
With that being said, several studies report alterations in these waves and
Andresen (2000) reports that primary findings indicate meditative states induce increased
theta and alpha wave band power, while decreasing theta and alpha wave frequency.
Shreckenberger and colleagues (2004) have also noted alpha wave band power increases,
in addition to noting an increased amount of thalamic activity while participants are in a
meditative state, compared to the control subjects. Furthermore, Shreckenberger and
colleagues (2004) also note that alpha band power waves are stronger in meditators at
rest, as compared to nonmeditators who had no previous experience with meditation.
However, Shreckenberger and colleagues (2004) note that this increased alpha activity
observed could be associated more with relaxation, rather than a specific result of
meditation since Aftanas and Golocheikine (2001) point out that not all studies have
shown an increased alpha wave activity in meditators.
Due to inconsistent findings, Yamamoto and colleagues (2006) sought to explore
the source of increased alpha activity utilizing magnetoencephalologrophy (MEG) and
EEG technology in 8 meditators who were using transcendental meditation (TM)
techniques. Yamamomto and colleagues (2006) found increased alpha activity
specifically in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPC) and the anterior cigulate (AC) cortex
regions of the brain while participants utilized methods from transcendental meditation
(TM). Consequently, Yamamoto and colleagues (2006) suggest that the increased alpha
wave activity observed in the MPF and AC cortex regions of the brain may play a pivotal
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role in the increased activity in the brain observed during states of transcendental
meditation (TM). Aftanas and Golocheikine (2005) lend support to this view in their
comparison of long-term meditators and non-meditators which also showed increased
alpha and theta wave activity recordings on EEG measurements, in addition to a slower
baseline EEG alpha and theta wave frequency found in long-term meditators as compared
to the non-meditator controls.
Lutz and colleagues (2004) also suggest that gamma waves play an important role
in altered states of consciousness observed during meditative states. For example, Lutz
and colleagues (2004) compared Tibetan Buddhist meditators with novice meditators
who were taught three separate meditative techniques for one week based on
concentrating on one object, focusing attention without the presence of an object, and
focusing on a state of “nonreferrential” love and feelings of compassion. Lutz and
colleagues (2004) found that both the Tibetan Buddhist meditators and novice meditators
showed a large increase in gamma wave power during states of meditation, with the
Tibetan Buddhist monks showing slightly higher increases in gamma wave power. Carter
and colleagues (2005) also found similar results in their study which compared Tibetan
Buddhist meditators with a group of controls who had no previous experience with
meditation. Additionally, Carter and colleagues (2005) also note that the monks showed a
higher gamma wave power at baseline compared to theta power at baseline, and noted
significant increases in gamma activity while the monks were meditating compared to the
control group.
In a more recent study, Peper and colleagues (2006) examined pain control
utilizing QEEG observations of a Yogi receiving a tongue piercing while in a meditative
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state to assess levels of pain control. Peper and colleagues (2006) note that during
baseline, the Yogi was able to lower his overall brain activity to a resting state marked by
slow delta waves. While in the meditative state, the Yogi showed a significant increase in
slow delta wave activity which is similar to individuals who are under analgesia (Peper et
al., 2006). Overall, Peper and colleagues (2006) suggest further studies need to be
conducted on individuals who show exceptional self-regulation as observed in the Yogi
master so that pain control can be taught to other individuals utilizing these techniques.
Neuroimaging Studies: PET and fMRI Observations
Neuroimaging studies utilizing positron emission tomography (PET) and
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have also been conducted on meditators
while in a meditative state. The main purpose of PET scan imaging is to observe the
actual brain activity going on within the brain by injecting a radioactive substance called
2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) into the participants’ carotid artery (Pinel, 2006). Due to 2-DG’s
similarity to glucose which is the brain’s primary source of energy, 2-DG accumulates
within active neurons and shows the levels of radioactivity in whatever part of the brain
is being most stimulated (Pinel, 2006). Accordingly, PET scans show the most active
parts of the brain that are utilized during specific activities such as meditation as will be
observed in this paper.
On the other hand, fMRI scans also measure the level of brain activity going on in
specific regions by recording increases in oxygen flow within the blood (Pinel, 2006).
However, Pinel (2006) points out that fMRI images have some advantages over PET scan
imaging because they do not require the injection of any substance into the participant;
fMRI’s provide both brain structure and brain activity within the same image; fMRI’s
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recording of spacial resolution is clearer; and fMRI’s can produce three-dimensional
images that records activity throughout the brain.
Accordingly, Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) conducted a study on longterm TM meditators in comparison to control participants to assess the effect of pain
utilizing fMRI observations while participants were in a meditative state. Orme-Johnson
and colleagues (2006) report that TM meditators showed decreased voxels by 40-50%
within the thalamus and various brain regions associated with pain responses, compared
to the control subjects. Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) then taught the control
subjects TM techniques for a five month period to assess whether their response to pain
showed lower voxels in various regions of the brain. Orme-Johnson and colleagues
(2006) report that after the control subjects had practiced TM techniques for five months
that they also showed decreased voxels by 40-50% in their response to pain within the
thalamus and prefrontal cortex regions of the brain. Consequently, Orme-Johnson and
colleagues (2006) suggest that the long-term effects of TM techniques may reduce the
affective areas of the brain that are associated with responses to pain.
In the same vein, studies have also been conducted utilizing hypnosis to examine
the brain’s response to pain in this altered state of consciousness. Faymonville (2006)
conducted a study on participants under hypnosis using a PET scan image and found that
hypnosis reduced participants’ perception of pain by approximately 50%. Faymonville
(2006) also notes that several cortical areas were activated during this state of hypnosis
which includes both the occipital and parietal lobes, the precentral, premotor, and
ventrolateral prefrontal regions of the brain, in addition to the anterior cingulated cortices.
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Other PET scan observations of meditators in a meditative state observed by
Kahana, Seelig, and Madsen (2001) note that increased hippocampal activity may be the
key factor which underlies the increased theta activity observed in meditators as
discussed above; while Kjaer and colleagues (2002) hypothesize that increased amounts
of dopamine may be released during meditative states which results in a loss of executive
control of certain regions within the brain. Kjaer and colleagues (2002) suggest that
support for the dopamine hypothesis is found in observations that dopaminergic changes
are often associated with decreases in overall striatal activity—however, further research
is needed to evaluate these theories.
Effects of Meditation
Nielsen and Kaszniak (2006) conducted a study of long-term meditators and
nonmeditators to assess the long-term effects of meditation. Nielsen and Kaszniak (2006)
assessed 11 participants who were long-term meditators, and 17 control subjects who had
never meditated before but were taught simple TM techniques. Nielsen and Kaszniak
(2006) report that long-term meditators showed increased levels of emotional control, a
lower heart-beat associated with more even-keel levels of awareness, and lower levels of
skin conductance response associated with levels of arousal often set off by anxiety, or
anxiety-provoking stimuli.
In the same vein, Cahn and Polich (2006) note several effects of long-term
meditation which include a deepened state of calmness, heightened states of awareness of
various sensory fields such as vision, hearing, and thinking more “clearly”; in addition to
a refreshed view of the self in relation to how experience relates to individual thoughts
and feelings (Cahn & Polich, 2006). Orme-Johnson and colleagues (2006) also note that
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participants who had been long-term TM meditators showed increased amounts of pain
control marked by higher levels of overall self-regulation associated with emotional and
physical pain control.
CONCLUSIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
In conclusion, meditation is showing promising results as an alternative form of
treatment for stress management aimed at reducing the “big five” lifestyle diseases which
consist of coronary heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder,
diabetes, and stroke (Lloyd & Foster, 2006); in addition to eventually being used for pain
control as demonstrated by Peper and colleagues’ (2006) study of the Yogi who was able
to induce a meditative state associated with increased delta waves. However, as Peper
and colleagues (2006) point out, this study was only conducted on one Yogi master and
further studies are needed to assess whether these techniques can be taught to others, in
addition to assessing the validity of these preliminary results.
Further implications include the long-term effects of meditation which have been
shown to increase a sense of inner calmness and peace, while lowering physiological
responses associated with acute and chronic states of stress (Nielsen & Kaszniak, 2006).
Nielsen and Kaszniak (2006) point out that further longitudinal studies are needed to
accurately assess whether these findings are both consistent and valid in a larger sample
size.
Other promising results suggest that long-term meditators have also shown
increased levels of emotional control marked by lower levels of anxiety (Nielsen &
Kaszniak, 2006), in addition to deepened states of calmness and heightened states of
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awareness which increase sensory perceptions associated with vision, hearing, and the
ability to think more clearly (Cahn & Polich, 2006).
EEG studies have also shown an increased amount of theta and alpha wave power
activity in meditators while in a meditative state (Andresen, 2000; Cahn & Polich, 2006),
while Yamamoto and colleagues (2006) also note this increased alpha wave power
activity was associated with increased activity in the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior
cingulated cortex regions of the brain. Further studies conducted by Lutz and colleagues
(2004) and Carter and colleagues (2005) also note that gamma waves may play an
important role in these induced states of altered consciousness found in subjects while in
a meditative state; while Kahana, Seelig, and Madsen (2001) hypothesize that increased
hippocampal activity may play a key role in regulating the increased amounts of theta
waves observed in meditators while in a meditative state. However, further studies are
needed to assess the exact role that alpha, theta, delta, and gamma waves may play in
these induced states of consciousness in reference to particular regions within the brain.
Particularly exciting is neuroimaging studies which implicate a decrease in voxels
by 40-50% within the thalamus and various other regions of the brain in participants
under a meditative state to assess pain control (Orme-Johnson et al., 2006). As OrmeJohnson and colleagues (2006) point out, further research is needed to assess to long-term
effects of meditation for the use of pain control in subjects who are not Yogi masters to
evaluate whether meditation is a viable alternative method for pain control in the future.
Overall, the use of meditation as a viable treatment option for stress management,
pain control, in addition to the treatment of several disorders such as anxiety and
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depression, may very well prove to be an efficient and cost-effective method to improve
health and prevent the onset of many of the “lifestyle” diseases associated with stress.
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