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• NAPT https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Approaches to brain simulation[edit] Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom), along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year. 1 Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to the QM wave equation. EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina. Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position. In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected: "Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom), along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Approaches to brain simulation[edit] Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom), along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year. 1 Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to the QM wave equation. EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina. Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position. In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected: "Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to the QM wave equation. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Approaches to brain simulation[edit] Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom), along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year. 1 Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to the QM wave equation. EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina. Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position. In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected: "Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Approaches to brain simulation[edit] Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom), along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year. 1 Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to the QM wave equation. EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina. Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position. In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected: "Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by placing thirty million synapses in their proper threedimensional position. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Approaches to brain simulation[edit] Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom), along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year. 1 Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to the QM wave equation. EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina. Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position. In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected: "Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected: "Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual capacity by around 2015, and that it is likely that we will be able to download the human brain at some time around 2050. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Approaches to brain simulation[edit] Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom), along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year. 1 Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to the QM wave equation. EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina. Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position. In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected: "Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual There are good reasons to believe that, regardless of implementation strategy, the predictions of realising artificial brains in the near future are optimistic https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Screenless - Synaptic interface Synaptic Interface screenless video does not use light at all 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Computational neuroscience - Memory and synaptic plasticity 1 Earlier models of memory are primarily based on the postulates of Hebbian learning https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Computational neuroscience - Memory and synaptic plasticity One of the major problems in neurophysiological memory is how it is maintained and changed through multiple time scales 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Short-term memory - Synaptic Theory of Short-term memory 1 Various researchers have proposed that stimuli are coded in short-term memory using transmitter depletion https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Cellular neuroscience - Synaptic plasticity 1 Synaptic plasticity is the process whereby strengths of synaptic connections are altered. For example, long-term changes in synaptic connection may result in more postsynaptic receptors being embedded in the postsynaptic membrane, resulting in the strengthening of the synapse. Synaptic plasticity is also found to be the neural mechanism that underlies learning and memory. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Cellular neuroscience - Synaptic plasticity The basic properties, activity and regulation of membrane currents, synaptic transmission and synaptic plasticity, neurotransmisson, neuroregensis, synaptogenesis and ion channels of cells are a few other fields studied by cellular neuroscientists. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Cellular neuroscience - Synaptic plasticity 1 Tissue, cellular and subcellular anatomy are studied to provide insight into mental retardation at the Mental Retardation Research Center MRRC Cellular Neuroscience Core. Journals such as Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience and Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience are published regarding cellular neuroscientific topics. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Brain simulation - Memory and synaptic plasticity 1 Earlier models of memory are primarily based on the postulates of Hebbian learning https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Brain simulation - Memory and synaptic plasticity One of the major problems in neurophysiological memory is how it is maintained and changed through multiple time scales 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Endocannabinoid system - Induction of synaptic depression Similar post-synaptic receptor dependencies were found in the striatum, but here both effects relied on presynaptic CB1 receptors 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neuroeducation - Synaptogenesis 1 In addition some critics of the Educational Neuroscience approach have highlighted limitations in applying the understanding of early physiological brain development, in particular synaptogenesis to educational theory. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neuroeducation - Synaptogenesis 1 Secondly, the purported critical period of birth to three years is derived from research on rhesus monkeys, who reach puberty at the age of three, and assumes that the period of synaptogenesis in humans exactly mirrors that of monkeys https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neuroeducation - Synaptogenesis Many of these skills continue to improve even after synaptic density reaches adult levels, and thus the most we can say is that synaptogenesis may be necessary for the emergence of these skills, but it cannot account entirely for their continued refinement.Goldman-Rakic, P.S., Development of cortical circuitry and cognitive function 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neuroeducation - Synaptogenesis 1 We know that synaptogenesis occurs, and that the pattern of synaptogenesis is important for normal brain function https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synapses - Synaptic polarization Phosphatidylinositol 4,5bisphosphate|PIP2 signalling regulated by Inositol monophosphatase|IMPase plays an integral role in synaptic polarity. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synapses - Synaptic polarization 1 This led to the conclusion that IMPase is required for the correct localization of synaptic protein components. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synapses - Synaptic polarization 1 This is genetic evidence that disruption of IMPase alters the levels of PIP2 in neurons; these results suggest that PIP2 signaling establishes polarized localization of synaptic components in living neurons. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html AMPA receptor - Synaptic plasticity Therefore, LTP can be induced experimentally in a paired electrophysiology|electrophysiological recording when a presynaptic cell is stimulated to release glutamate on a postsynaptic cell that is depolarized 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html AMPA receptor - Synaptic plasticity 1 The molecular basis for LTP has been extensively studied, and AMPARs have been shown to play an integral role in the process. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html AMPA receptor - Synaptic plasticity 1 Both GluR1 and GluR2 play an important role in synaptic plasticity. It is now known that the underlying physiological correlate for the increase in EPSP size is a postsynaptic upregulation of AMPARs at the membrane, which is accomplished through the interactions of AMPARs with many cellular proteins. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html AMPA receptor - Synaptic plasticity Ligand binding causes the AMPARs to open, and Na+ flows into the postsynaptic cell, resulting in a depolarization 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials 1 These are collectively referred to as postsynaptic receptors, since they are on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - The role of ions One way receptors can react to being bound by a neurotransmitter is to open or close an ion channel, allowing ions to enter or leave the cell 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - Relation to action potentials 1 Neurons have a resting potential of about 70mV. If the opening of the ion channel results in a net gain of positive charge across the membrane, the membrane is said to be depolarization|depolarized, as the potential comes closer to zero. This is an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP), as it brings the neuron's potential closer to its firing threshold (about -50mV). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - Relation to action potentials 1 If, on the other hand, the opening of the ion channel results in a net gain of negative charge, this moves the potential further from zero and is referred to as Hyperpolarization (biology)|hyperpolarization. This is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP), as it changes the charge across the membrane to be further from the firing threshold. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - Relation to action potentials Neurotransmitters are not inherently excitatory or inhibitory: different receptors for the same neurotransmitter may open different types of ion channels. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - Relation to action potentials If the postsynaptic cell is sufficiently depolarized, an action potential will occur 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - Termination of postsynaptic potentials Postsynaptic potentials begin to be terminated when the neurotransmitter detaches from its receptor. The receptor is then free to return to its previous structural state. Ion channels that had been opened by the receptor when the neurotransmitter was bound to it will now close. Once the channels are closed, ions return to their equilibrium states, and the membrane is returned to its equilibrium potential. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - Algebraic summation 1 Postsynaptic potentials are subject to summation, spatially and/or temporally. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - Algebraic summation 1 If the cell is receiving both inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials, they can cancel out, or one can be stronger than the other, and the membrane potential will change by the difference between them. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Post-synaptic potentials - Algebraic summation 1 'Temporal summation': When a cell receives inputs that are close together in time, they are also added together, even if from the same synapse. Thus, if a neuron receives an excitatory postsynaptic potential, and then the presynaptic neuron fires again, creating another EPSP, then the membrane of the postsynaptic cell is depolarized by the total of the EPSPs. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Amyloid precursor protein - Synaptic formation and repair 1 The most-substantiated role for APP is in synaptic formation and repair; its gene expression|expression is gene regulation|upregulated during neuronal cell differentiation|differentiation and after neural injury https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Amyloid precursor protein - Synaptic formation and repair APP knockout mice are viable and have relatively minor phenotype|phenotypic effects including impaired long-term potentiation and memory loss without general neuron loss. On the other hand, transgenic mice with upregulated APP expression have also been reported to show impaired long-term potentiation.Matsuyama S, Teraoka R, Mori H, Tomiyama T. (2007). Inverse correlation between amyloid precursor protein and synaptic plasticity in transgenic mice. Neuroreport 18(10):1083-7. PMID 17558301 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Amyloid precursor protein - Synaptic formation and repair The logical inference is that because Aβ accumulates excessively in Alzheimer's disease its precursor, APP, would be elevated as well. However, neuronal cell bodies contain less APP as a function of their proximity to amyloid plaques. The data indicate that this deficit in APP results from a decline in production rather than an increase in catalysis. Loss of a neuron's APP may affect physiological deficits that contribute to dementia. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html IPv6 transition mechanisms - NAPT-PT 1 While almost identical to NAT-PT, Network Address Port Translation + Protocol Translation which is also described in RFC 2766 adds translation of the ports as well as the address. This is done primarily to avoid two hosts on one side of the mechanism from using the same exposed port on the other side of the mechanism, which could cause https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Chemical synapse - Synaptic strength Learning and memory are believed to result from long-term changes in synaptic strength, via a mechanism known as synaptic plasticity. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Chemical synapse - Synaptic plasticity Synaptic plasticity can be either homosynaptic (occurring at a single synapse) or heterosynaptic (occurring at multiple synapses). 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Chemical synapse - Homosynaptic plasticity 1 It can result in either an increase or decrease in synaptic strength. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Chemical synapse - Homosynaptic plasticity One example is neurons of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), which release noradrenaline, which, besides affecting postsynaptic receptors, also affects presynaptic α2-adrenergic receptors, inhibiting further release of noradrenaline. This effect is utilized with clonidine to perform inhibitory effects on the SNS. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Chemical synapse - Heterosynaptic plasticity Heterosynaptic Plasticity (or also heterotropic modulation) is a change in synaptic strength that results from the activity of other neurons. Again, the plasticity can alter the number of vesicles or their replenishment rate or the relationship between calcium and vesicle release. Additionally, it could directly affect calcium influx. Heterosynaptic plasticity can also be postsynaptic in nature, affecting receptor sensitivity. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Chemical synapse - Heterosynaptic plasticity One example is again neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, which release noradrenaline, which, in addition, generates an inhibitory effect on presynaptic terminals of neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Chemical synapse - Integration of synaptic inputs 1 When action potentials from multiple presynaptic neurons fire simultaneously, or if a single presynaptic neuron fires at a high enough frequency, the EPSPs can overlap and summate https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Chemical synapse - Integration of synaptic inputs 1 John Carew Eccles performed some of the important early experiments on synaptic integration, for which he received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1963 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging 1 The synaptic tagging hypothesis attempts to solve the cell's difficult problem of synthesizing proteins in the cell body but ensuring they only reach synapses that have received LTP-inducing stimuli. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging 1 The products of gene expression are shipped globally throughout the cell, but are only captured by synapses that express the synaptic tag https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging With both synapses expressing the synaptic tag, both would capture the protein products resulting in the expression of LTP in both the strongly stimulated and weakly stimulated pathways. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging 1 As before, this may be accomplished through the synthesis of a local synaptic tag following weak synaptic stimulation. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Holonomic brain theory - The synaptodendritic web Many synaptic locations are functionally bipolar, meaning they can both send and receive impulses from each neuron, distributing input and output over the entire group of dendrites.Pribram, K 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Holonomic brain theory - The synaptodendritic web 1 A study by David Alkon showed that after unconscious Classical Conditioning|Pavlovian conditioning there was a proportionally greater reduction in the volume of the dendritic arbor, akin to synaptic elimination when experience increases the automaticity of an action https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Holonomic brain theory - The synaptodendritic web These polarizations act as waves in the synaptodendritic network, and the existence of multiple waves at once gives rise to interference patterns. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics 'Synaptics' develops human interface solutions for many major consumer electronics companies, such as Acer (company)|Acer, Apple Inc., Asus, Dell, Gateway Computers|Gateway, HewlettPackard|HP, HTC, Lenovo, LG, Logitech, Nokia, Samsung, Sony, Sony Ericsson, Toshiba and several others. The products include touchpads and touchscreens for a variety of devices including notebook PCs, PC peripherals, mobile phones, digital music players, and remote controls. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - History Synaptics was originally founded as a neural network research company in 1986 by Kevin J. Kinsella, Gary Lynch, Lauren Yazolino, Federico Faggin (co-inventor of the microprocessor) and Carver Mead (VLSI pioneer). The company began to apply semiconductor hardware design techniques to a computing technology known as neural networks. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - History 1 The company started shipping commercial products in 1995, with its flagship TouchPad interface for notebook PCs. The TouchPad is a touch-sensitive pad for notebooks or keyboards that senses the position of a user’s finger(s) on the surface to provide screen navigation, cursor movement, application control, and a platform for interactive input. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - History Synaptics went public in 2002 and is currently listed on the NASDAQ exchange. The IPO of 5 million common stock shares at a price of $11.00 per share received a 57% return at the close of Q1 2002. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - Technology Synaptics products are based on capacitive sensing technology. Capacitive touch sensing works by sensing the electrical properties of the finger(s) touching the sensor. Whereas the resistive touchscreen senses direct pressure between two clear electrical layers that are separated by a small space, requiring an amount of force. Capacitive touch sensing solutions are Solid-state (electronics)|solid state making them more robust than resistive 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - Products A touchpad is integrated into the majority of today's notebook computers. Synaptics' share for touchpads in the notebook PC market is in the 65-70% range. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - Products 1 Some of Synaptics' products are listed below: https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - Products 1 *ClickPad – The ClickPad allows users to press down on the TouchPad itself to perform a left or right click. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - Products 1 *ClearPad – The ClearPad was the world's first clear capacitive touchscreen sensor for mobile devices. LG Electronics was the first to offer a mobile phone with this sensor with the LG Prada (KE850) in December 2006. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptics - Products 1 *Gesture Suite (SGS) – SGS provides Synaptics TouchPad users a variety of gestures for cursor commands, available for Microsoft Windows|Windows https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity 1 There are several underlying mechanisms that cooperate to achieve synaptic plasticity, including changes in the quantity of neurotransmitters released into a synapse and changes in how effectively cells respond to those neurotransmitters. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity 1 Synaptic plasticity in both excitatory and inhibitory synapses has been found to be dependent upon postsynaptic calcium release. Since memory|memories are postulated to be represented by vastly interconnected networks of synapses in the brain, synaptic plasticity is one of the important neurochemical foundations of learning and memory (see Hebbian theory). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Historical discoveries They were able to show a burst of tetanic (100Hz) stimulus on perforant path fibres led to a dramatic and longlasting augmentation in the postsynaptic response of cells onto which these fibres synapse in the dendate gyrus 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms Opening of NMDA channels (which relates to the level of cellular depolarization) leads to a rise in postsynaptic Ca2+ concentration and this has been linked to long-term potentiation, LTP (as well as to protein kinase activation); strong depolarization of the post-synaptic cell completely displaces the magnesium ions that block NMDA ion channels and allows calcium ions to enter a cell – 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 This in turn increases post-synaptic excitation by a given pre-synaptic stimulus https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 The second mechanism depends on a second messenger cascade regulating Transcription (genetics)|gene transcription and changes in the levels of key proteins at synapses such as CaMKII and PKAII https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms Individual dendritic spines are capable of forming unique responses to presynaptic cells. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 This second mechanism can be triggered by protein phosphorylation but takes longer and lasts longer, providing the mechanism for long-lasting memory storage. The duration of the LTP can be regulated by breakdown of these second messengers. Phosphodiesterase, for example, breaks down the secondary messenger Cyclic adenosine monophosphate|cAMP, which has been implicated in increased AMPA receptor synthesis in the post-synaptic neuron . https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 By changing the F-actin cytoskeletal structure of dendritic spines, spines are lengthened and the chance that they make synaptic contacts with the axonal terminals of the presynaptic cell is increased https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 The number of ion channels on the post-synaptic membrane affects the strength of the synapse. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms Research suggests that the density of receptors on post-synaptic membranes changes, affecting the neuron’s excitability in response to stimuli. In a dynamic process that is maintained in equilibrium, NMDA receptor|N-methyl D-aspartate receptor (NMDA receptor) and AMPA receptors are added to the membrane by exocytosis and removed by endocytosis. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms These processes, and by extension the number of receptors on the membrane, can be altered by synaptic activity. Experiments have shown that AMPA receptors are delivered to the synapse through vesicular membrane fusion with the postsynaptic membrane via the protein kinase CaMKII, which is activated by the influx of calcium through NMDA receptors. CaMKII also 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms When there is high-frequency NMDA receptor activation, there is an increase in the expression of a protein PSD-95 that increases synaptic capacity for AMPA receptors. This is what leads to a longterm increase in AMPA receptors and thus synaptic strength and plasticity. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms If the strength of a synapse is only reinforced by stimulation or weakened by its lack, a positive feedback loop will develop, causing some cells never to fire and some to fire too much. But two regulatory forms of plasticity, called scaling and metaplasticity, also exist to provide negative feedback. Synaptic scaling is a primary mechanism by which a 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 Synaptic scaling is a primary mechanism by which a neuron to be selective to its varying inputs. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 The neuronal circuitry affected by LTP/LTD and modified by scaling and metaplasticity leads to reverberatory neural circuit development and regulation in a Hebbian manner which is manifested as memory, whereas the changes in neural circuitry, which begin at the level of the synapse, are an integral part in the ability of an organism to learn. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 There is also a specificity element of biochemical interactions to create synaptic plasticity, namely the importance of location. Processes occur at microdomains – such as exocytosis of AMPA receptors is spatially regulated by the t-SNARE Stx4. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms 1 Specificity is also an important aspect of CAMKII signaling involving nanodomain calcium. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms The spatial gradient of PKA between dendritic spines and shafts is also important for the strength and regulation of synaptic plasticity. It is important to remember that the biochemical mechanisms altering synaptic plasticity occur at the level of individual synapses of a neuron. Since the biochemical mechanisms are confined to these microdomains, the resulting synaptic plasticity affects only the specific synapse at which it took place. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms 1 A bidirectional model, describing both LTP and LTD, of synaptic plasticity has proved necessary for a number of different learning mechanisms in computational neuroscience, neural networks, and biophysics. Three major hypotheses for the molecular nature of this plasticity have been well-studied, and none are required to be the exclusive mechanism: https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms # Change in the probability of glutamate release. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms 1 # Phosphorylation and de-phosphorylation inducing a change in AMPA receptor conductance. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms Of these, the first two hypotheses have been recently mathematically examined to have identical calcium-dependent dynamics which provides strong theoretical evidence for a calcium-based model of plasticity, which in a linear model where the total number of receptors are conserved looks like 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms :\frac=\frac]_i)2+2+\rm fp is also a function of the concentration of calcium that depends linearly on the number of receptors on the membrane of the neuron at some fixed point. Both \Omega and \tau are found experimentally and agree on results from both hypotheses. The model makes important simplifications that make it unsuited for actual experimental predictions, but provides a significant basis for the hypothesis of a calcium-based synaptic plasticity dependence. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Short-term plasticity 1 Short-term synaptic plasticity acts on a timescale of tens of milliseconds to a few minutes unlike long-term plasticity, which lasts from minutes to hours. Short term plasticity can either strengthen or weaken a synapse. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Synaptic enhancement Depending on the time scales over which it acts synaptic enhancement is classified as neural facilitation, synaptic augmentation or post-tetanic potentiation. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Synaptic depression Synaptic fatigue or depression is usually attributed to the depletion of the readily releasable vesicles. Depression can also arise from postsynaptic processes and from feedback activation of presynaptic receptors. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Synaptic depression 1 Heterosynaptic depression is thought to be linked to the release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from astrocytes. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Long-term plasticity Long-term depression and long-term potentiation are two forms of long-term plasticity, lasting minutes or more, that occur at excitatory synapses. NMDAdependent LTD and LTP have been extensively researched, and are found to require the binding of glutamate, and glycine or D-serine for activation of NMDA receptors. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Long-term depression These alternative conditions capable of causing LTD differ from the Hebb rule, and instead depend on synaptic activity modifications 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Long-term depression 1 A LTD was evidenced in 2011 for the electrical synapses (modification of Gap Junctions efficacy through their activity).J. S. Haas, B. Zavala, C. E. Landisman, Activity-dependent longterm depression of electrical synapses Science 334, 389–393 (2011). [Abstract] [Full Text] https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Long-term potentiation LTP involves interactions between postsynaptic neurons and the specific presynaptic inputs that form a synaptic association, and is specific to the stimulated pathway of synaptic transmission 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Long-term potentiation LTP is also a model for studying the synaptic basis of Hebbian plasticity. Induction conditions resemble those described for the initiation of long-term depression (LTD), but a stronger depolarization and a greater increase of calcium are necessary to achieve LTP. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic plasticity - Synaptic strength 1 The modification of synaptic strength is referred to as functional plasticity. Changes in synaptic strength involve distinct mechanisms of particular types of glial cells, the most researched type being astrocytes. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential Another way to look at inhibitory postsynaptic potentials is that they are also a chloride conductance change in the neuronal cell because it decreases the driving force.Microelectrodes can be used to measure postsynaptic potentials at either excitatory or inhibitory synapses. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential 1 EPSPs and IPSPs compete with each other at numerous synapses of a neuron; this determines whether or not the action potential at the presynaptic terminal will regenerate at the postsynaptic membrane https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Types 1 This system IPSPs can be temporally summed with subthreshold or suprathreshold EPSPs to reduce the amplitude of the resultant postsynaptic potential. Equivalent EPSPs (positive) and IPSPs (negative) can cancel each other out when summed. The balance between EPSPs and IPSPs is very important in the integration of electrical information produced by inhibitory and excitatory synapses. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Factors 1 The size of the neuron can also affect the inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Simple temporal summation of postsynaptic potentials occurs in smaller neurons, whereas in larger neurons larger numbers of synapses and ionotropic receptors as well as a longer distance from the synapse to the soma enables the prolongation of interactions between neurons. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Inhibitory Molecules 1 If the electrochemical potential of the ion is more negative than that of the action potential threshold then the resultant conductance change that occurs due to the binding of GABA to its receptors keeps the postsynaptic potential more negative than the threshold and decreases the probability of the postsynaptic neuron completing an action potential https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Ionotropic receptors 1 These channels influence the amplitude and time-course of postsynaptic potentials as a whole https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Metabotropic receptors 1 They can also block calcium ion channels in order to hyperpolarize postsynaptic cells. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance There are many applications of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials to the real world. Drugs that affect the actions of the neurotransmitter can treat neurological and psychological disorders through different combinations of types of receptors, Gproteins, and ion channels in postsynaptic neurons. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance For example, studies researching opioid receptor-mediated receptor desensitizing and trafficking in the locus cereleus of the brain are being performed 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance 1 Morphine and opioids relate to inhibitory postsynaptic potentials because they induce disinhibition in dopamine neurons. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance Songbirds use GABAergic calyceal synaptic terminals and a calcyx-like synapse such that each cell in the dorsalateral thalamic nucleus receives at most two axon terminals from the basal ganglia to create large postsynaptic currents 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance When the ipsilateral striatum of an adult toad was electrically stimulated, inhibitory postsynaptic potentials were induced in binocular tegmental neurons, which affects the visual system of the toad. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies Dendritic inhibitory postsynaptic potentials can be severely reduced by DSIs through direct depolarization 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies The hyperpolarization (biology)|hyperpolarization activated nonselective cation conductance decreases EPSP summation and duration and they also change inhibitory inputs into postsynaptic excitation 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies Theta rhythms are found in the hippocampus and GABAergic synaptic inhibition helps to modulate them 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies The results showed that both compound and unitary inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are amplified by dendritic calcium ion channels 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies 1 Descending modulatory inputs are necessary for the developmental shift from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing inhibitory postsynaptic potentials https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies The changing levels of synaptically released glutamate creates an excitation through the activation of ionotropic receptors, followed by the inhibition of metabotropic glutamate receptors. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Reconsolidation - Synaptic consolidation 1 LTP, one of the best understood forms of synaptic plasticity, is thought to be a possible underlying process in synaptic consolidation. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission Synaptic transmission relies on: the availability of the neurotransmitter; the release of the neuron by exocytosis; the binding of the postsynaptic receptor by the neurotransmitter; the functional response of the postsynaptic cell; and the subsequent removal or deactivation of the neurotransmitter 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission The binding of neurotransmitters to receptors in the postsynaptic neuron can trigger either short term changes, like changes in the membrane potential called postsynaptic potentials, or longer term changes by the activation of Signal transduction|signaling cascades 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission 1 Neurons form elaborate networks through which nerve impulses (action potentials) travel https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Stages in neurotransmission at the synapse 1 # Synthesis of the neurotransmitter. This can take place in the cell body, in the axon, or in the axon terminal. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Stages in neurotransmission at the synapse 1 # Storage of the neurotransmitter in storage granules or vesicles in the axon terminal. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Stages in neurotransmission at the synapse # Calcium enters the axon terminal during an action potential, causing exocytosis|release of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Stages in neurotransmission at the synapse 1 # Deactivation of the neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter is either destroyed enzymatically, or taken back into the terminal from which it came, where it can be reused, or degraded and removed. (reference for all five stages) https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Summation 1 Each neuron connects with numerous other neurons, receiving numerous impulses from them. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Summation 'Summation' is the adding together of these impulses at the axon hillock. If the neuron only gets excitatory impulses, it will also generate an action potential. If instead the neuron gets as many inhibitory as excitatory impulses, the inhibition cancels out the excitation and the nerve impulse will stop there.[http://core.ecu.edu/psyc/grahamr/D W_3311Site/ReadingGuidesF/RG_Index.h tml] 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Summation 1 'Spatial summation' means that the effects of impulses received at different places on the neuron add up, so that the neuron may fire when such impulses are received simultaneously, even if each impulse on its own would not be sufficient to cause firing. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Summation 'Temporal summation' means that the effects of impulses received at the same place can add up if the impulses are received in close temporal succession. Thus the neuron may fire when multiple impulses are received, even if each impulse on its own would not be sufficient to cause firing.[http://web.lemoyne.edu/~hevern/psy 340/graphics/summation.jpg] 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Convergence and divergence Neurotransmission implies both a convergence and a divergence of information. First one neuron is influenced by many others, resulting in a convergence of input. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Convergence and divergence 1 When the neuron fires, the signal is sent to many other neurons, resulting in a divergence of output. Many other neurons are influenced by this neuron.[http://www.cameron.edu/~gabrielr/ PHYCH4/sld055.htm] https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission 1 'Cotransmission' is the release of several types of neurotransmitters from a single nerve terminal. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission At the nerve terminal, neurotransmitters are present within 35–50 nm membrane-encased vesicles called synaptic vesicles. To release neurotransmitters, the synaptic vesicles transiently dock and fuse at the base of specialized 10–15 nm cupshaped lipoprotein structures at the presynaptic membrane called porosomes. The neuronal porosome 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission 1 Recent studies in a myriad of systems have shown that most, if not all, neurons release several different chemical messengers. Cotransmission allows for more complex effects at Neurotransmitter receptor|postsynaptic receptors, and thus allows for more complex communication to occur between neurons. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission In modern neuroscience, neurons are often classified by their cotransmitter. For example, striatal GABAergic neurons utilize opioid peptides or substance P as their primary cotransmitter. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission 1 Some neurons can release at least two neurotransmitters at the same time, the other being a Neurotransmission#Cotransmission| cotransmitter, in order to provide the stabilizing negative feedback required for meaningful encoding, in the absence of inhibitory interneurons. Examples include: https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission 1 * Dopamine–glutamate co-release. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission 1 * Acetylcholine–glutamate corelease. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission 1 * Glutamate–dynorphin corelease (in hippocampus). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential 1 The flow of ions that causes an EPSP is an 'excitatory postsynaptic current' (EPSC). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential 1 EPSPs, like IPSPs, are graded (i.e. they have an additive effect). When multiple EPSPs occur on a single patch of postsynaptic membrane, their combined effect is the sum of the individual EPSPs. Larger EPSPs result in greater membrane depolarization and thus increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell reaches the threshold for firing an action potential. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Overview At excitatory synapses, the ion channel typically allows sodium into the cell, generating an excitatory postsynaptic current 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Excitatory molecules The neurotransmitter most often associated with EPSPs is the amino acid glutamate, and is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of vertebrates 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Excitatory molecules 1 At the same time, GABA is the most common neurotransmitter associated with IPSPs in the brain. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Excitatory molecules However, classifying neurotransmitters as such is technically incorrect, as there are several other synaptic factors that help determine a neurotransmitter's excitatory or inhibitory effects. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Miniature EPSPs and quantal analysis The release of synaptic vesicle|neurotransmitter vesicles from the presynaptic cell is probabilistic. In fact, even without stimulation of the presynaptic cell, a single vesicle will occasionally be released into the synapse, generating miniature EPSPs 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Miniature EPSPs and quantal analysis 1 Quantal size can then be defined as the synaptic response to the release of neurotransmitter from a single vesicle, while quantal content is the number of effective vesicles released in response to a nerve impulse https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Field EPSPs Because these neurons are in the same orientation, the extracellular signals from synaptic excitation don't cancel out, but rather add up to give a signal that can easily be recorded with a field electrode 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Encoding (memory) - Synaptic plasticity 1 In the short term, synaptic changes may include the strengthening or weakening of a connection by modifying the preexisting proteins leading to a modification in synapse connection strength https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Sleep and Memory - Synaptic plasticity 1 Synaptic plasticity can be described as the changing in strength between two related neurons https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA The Union is a voluntary association of members not for gain acting in the activities of the Union and in order to adhere to its principles and to promote, protect and maintain the rights, status and interests of members in good standing, the Union shall: 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * promote a system of education that is non-discriminatory with regard to colour, language, gender, religion, ethnicity, origin, social class, birth, political or other convictions, disabilities, natural or cultural characteristics; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * promote a system of education which focuses on the needs of the individual learner https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA * strive for an equitable system of education in South Africa which will satisfy the needs and aspirations of all its people; 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * strive for the establishment and the maintenance of effective compulsory education; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA * assert the professional responsibility of educators to guide pupils and students in their care in the universal pursuit of knowledge and skills and in the development of full creative potential so that they may become responsible and selfsupporting citizens of a democratic state; 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * ensure that the interests of learners are in no way prejudiced by any act or omission on the part of employees, whilst affirming the fundamental right of employees to strike; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * contribute to the development of all education legislation and all aspects of education policy and planning; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * strive to maintain and enhance effective consultation, advisory, collective negotiating and bargaining mechanisms and structures for the organised teaching profession; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * support a professional body which is responsible for the registration of educators, the promotion of professional development of educators and the maintenance of a code of conduct; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * co-operate with parents, communities and other bodies in the quest for excellence in education; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA 1 * assume financial responsibility for a fund or funds to be applied in the achievement of the objectives stated above, and to take any action to raise or obtain funds; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA * provide a collective voice in the pursuance of its aims and objectives including, but not limited to, continual evaluation and enhancement of legislation affecting education and education sector employees, as circumstances may require; 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA * do all things necessary for the furtherance and achievement of any or all of the above objectives and in general serve the best interests of the Union, its members and its provincial structures. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Normality (behavior) - Neuronal and synaptic normality 1 Hebbian associative learning and memory maintenance depends on synaptic normalization mechanisms to prevent synaptic runaway. Where synaptic runaway describes overcrowding of dendrite|dendritic associations, which reduce sensory or behavioural acuteness proportional to the level of synaptic runaway. Synaptic/neuronal normalization refers to synaptic competition, where the https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Normality (behavior) - Neuronal and synaptic normality 1 Neuronal and synaptic normalization mechanisms must operate so positive association feedback loops to not become rampant while constantly processing new environmental information. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Normality (behavior) - Neuronal and synaptic normality The re-normalization occurs from cortical large amplitude brain rhythm, in the low delta range (0.5–2Hz), synaptically downscaling the associations from the wakeful learning state 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Normality (behavior) - Neuronal and synaptic normality 1 Also, organisms tend to have a normal biological developmental pathway as a central nervous system ages and/or learns. Deviations for a species' normal development frequently will result in behaviour dysfunction, or death, of that organism. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Fear processing in the brain - Hebbian synaptic plasticity 1 It is also clear that synaptic plasticity at conditioned stimulus input pathways to the lateral amygdala does occur with fear conditioning. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Congenital myasthenic syndrome - Postsynaptic CMS 1 In the neuromuscular junction there is a vital pathway that maintains synaptic structure and results in the aggregation and localization of AChR on the postsynaptic folds https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Congenital myasthenic syndrome - Postsynaptic CMS 1 Out of all mutations associated with CMS, more than half are mutations in one of the four genes encoding the adult acetylcholine receptor (AChR) subunits https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Congenital myasthenic syndrome - Postsynaptic CMS 1 Another common underlying mechanism of CMS is the mutation of the rapsyn protein, coded by the RAPSN gene https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Congenital myasthenic syndrome - Postsynaptic CMS 1 Studies have shown that most patients with CMS that have rapsyn mutations carry the common mutation N88K on at least one allele https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self 1 Published in 2002, Ledoux's Synaptic Self attempts to synthesize his research in neuroscience and on the brain in order to begin tackling the big https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self 1 Ledoux gives a brief synopsis of the disciplines that have made significant contributions to theories and conceptions of the self, claiming his synaptic theory of the self is not proposed as an alternative to these views...rather, an attempt to portray the way the psychological, social, moral, aesthetic, or spiritual is realized.Ibid 3 From here, Ledoux goes on to https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self It includes what we would like to be as well as what we hope we never become...I believe, in short, that an answer to the question of how our brains make us who we are can be found in synaptic processes that allow cooperative interactions to take place between the various brain systems that are involved in particular states and experiences, and for these interactions to be linked over time.Ibid 31-32 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self Essentially, Ledoux understands the self to be a constructed assembly of synaptic connections that begins with genetic and environmental influences and then is refined through experiences to distinguish one self from another. He believes that synaptic plasticity occur[s] in multiple neural systems [and] is coordinated in the process of assembling, and 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self 1 #Different Systems Experience the Same World - Systems in the brain experience the same event, but store and interpret the information in different ways creating a parallel encoding/plasticity https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self #Parallel Plasticity is also Coordinated by Modulatory Systems Significant events trigger modulatory systems to release chemicals that in turn excite active cells across the brain also helping coordinate parallel plasticity 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self #Convergence Zones Integrate Parallel Plasticity - Certain regions act as convergence zones that integrate processing in independent systems and then influence the activity of the input regions 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self 1 #Downwardly Mobile Thoughts Coordinate Parallel Plasticity - To carry out an intention, it requires downward mobility which influences plasticity in a top-bottom manner https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self 1 #Emotional States Monopolize Brain Resources - Activation of emotional systems coordinate activation of several corresponding areas. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self 1 #Implicit and Explicit Aspects of the Self Overlap, but not Completely - We try and control who we are through explicit systems but due to imperfect cognitive access to implicit emotional systems, that is not always possible. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self 1 That the self is synaptic can be a curse - it doesn't take much to break it apart. But it is also a blessing, as there are always new connections waiting to be made. You are your synapses. They are who you are.Ibid 324 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M. 1 In True Spies, it is revealed that Snaptrap actually doesn't hate Larry, but only mistreated him because he believes he has much potential to be malignant. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M. 1 in Iron Mutt, he thinks that Snaptrap has planned to trap the principal of the local high school and impersonate her due to the large mousetrap and the dress he's wearing which Snaptrap quickly covers up by saying that was his plan) https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M. 1 * 'Francisco' (voiced by Daran Norris in a Chicago accent) - An alligator who is one of Snaptrap's main henchmen. He is also the only one of Snaptrap's henchman who seems to take villainy seriously. In Dog Dish, he kept trying to convince Snaptrap to use the invisibility helmet for more evil deeds than sneaking into the movies. In True Spies, it is revealed that Francisco's https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M. 1 * 'Bad Dog' (voiced by Jeff Bennett in the first appearance, Daran Norris in later appearances) - A pit bull and one of Snaptrap's henchmen. He is often seen with a black torn sleeveless shirt with a skull on it (similar to Punisher's T-shirt). Bad Dog is often paired up with Leather Teddy. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M. 1 * 'Leather Teddy' (voiced by Eric Bauza) A leather clad Tibetan blue bear|blue bear and one of Snaptrap's henchmen that wears an eyepatch (though the first episode shows that he still has an eye under the eyepatch). He wields bear traps on chains for weapons. Leather Teddy's outfit gives him the appearance of a Outlaw motorcycle club|biker. He is often paired up with Bad Dog. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M. 1 * 'Skunk' (voiced by Jeff Bennett) - A skunk who is one of Snaptrap's henchmen. So far, he has only appeared in Cruisin' with a Bruisin. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Microglia - Synaptic stripping In a phenomenon first noticed in spinal lesions by Blinzinger and Kreutzberg in 1968, postinflammation microglia remove the branches from nerves near damaged tissue. This helps promote regrowth and remapping of damaged neural circuitry. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Pinealocyte - Synaptic ribbons At night, synaptic ribbons of rats appear larger and slightly curved, but during the day, they appear smaller and rod-like. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Postsynaptic density 1 Hundreds of proteins have been identified in the postsynaptic density including glutamate receptors, scaffold proteins, and many signaling molecules. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Postsynaptic density - Function The PSD has been proposed to concentrate and organize neurotransmitter receptors in the synaptic cleft 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Postsynaptic density - Structure 1 The structure and composition of the PSD have been the focus of numerous molecular studies of synaptic plasticity, a cellular model of learning and memory. PSDs are sized on the order of 250 to 500 nanometres in diameter and 25 to 50 nanometres in thickness, depending on the activity state of the synapse. During synaptic plasticity, the total size of the PSD is increasing along with an increase in synaptic size and strength after inducing long-term potentiation at single synapses. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Postsynaptic density - Composition Current estimates are greater than several hundred proteins are found at PSDs among brain regions and during different states of development and synaptic activity 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Use of DNA in forensic entomology - Order Siphonaptera Listed here are fleas commonly encountered by humans that could potentially be used for DNA identification. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Use of DNA in forensic entomology - Order Siphonaptera * Sticktight and chigoe flea, Family Hectopsyllidae (formerly Tungidae) 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Use of DNA in forensic entomology - Order Siphonaptera * Northern rat flea (Nosopsyllus fasciatus) 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Tripiṭaka - Prajñaptivāda 1 The Prajñaptivāda|Prajñaptivādins held that the Buddha's teachings in the various piṭakas were nominal (Skt https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Two truths doctrine - Prajnāptivāda 1 The Prajnaptivada|Prajnāptivāda school took up the distinction between the conventional and ultimate (paramārtha/), and extended the concept to Dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|metaphysicalphenomenological constituents (dharmas), distinguishing those that are real (tattva) from those that are purely conceptual, i.e., ultimately nonexistent (prajnāpti). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Palmitoylation - Palmitoylation in synaptic plasticity 1 This provides a role for palmitoylation in regulating neurotransmitter release.Molecular Mechanisms of Synaptogenesis https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Palmitoylation - Palmitoylation in synaptic plasticity 1 Palmitoylation of delta catenin seems to coordinate activity-dependent changes in synaptic adhesion molecules, synapse structure, and receptor localizations that are involved in memory formation. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Federico Faggin - Synaptics 1 As cofounder, president and CEO of Synaptics, F. Faggin contributed also to the creation of the Synaptics I1000, the world’s first single-chip optical character recognizer (1991), and the Synaptics Touchpad (1994) and Touchscreen (1998). F. Faggin is a coinventor of 10 patents assigned to Synaptics. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft 'Chemical synapses' are specialized junctions through which neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in neuromuscular junction|muscles or glands. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the central nervous system. They are crucial to the biological computations that underlie perception and thought. They allow the nervous system to connect to and control other systems of the body. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft Finally, the neurotransmitters must be cleared from the synapse through one of several potential mechanisms including enzymatic degradation or re-uptake by Neurotransmitter transporter|specific transporters either on the presynaptic cell or possibly by neuroglia to terminate the action of the transmitter. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft 1 The adult human brain is estimated to contain from 1014 to 5 × 1014 (100–500 trillion) synapses. Every cubic millimeter of cerebral cortex contains roughly a billion (Long and short scales|short scale, i.e. 109) of them. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft The word synapse comes from synaptein, which Sir Charles Scott Sherrington and colleagues coined from the Greek syn- (together) and haptein (to clasp). Chemical synapses are not the only type of biological synapse: electrical synapse|electrical and immunological synapses also exist. Without a qualifier, however, synapse commonly means chemical 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure 1 Synapses are functional connections between neurons, or between neurons and other types of cells. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure 1 A typical neuron gives rise to several thousand synapses, although there are some types that make far fewer. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure 1 but there are also other types of connections, including axon-to-cell-body, axon-to-axon, https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure 1 Synapses are generally too small to be recognizable using a light microscope except as points where the membranes of two cells appear to touch, but their cellular elements can be visualized clearly using an electron microscope. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure 1 Synaptic vesicles are docked at the presynaptic plasma membrane at regions called active zones. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure 1 Immediately opposite is a region of the postsynaptic cell containing neurotransmitter receptor (biochemistry)|receptors; for synapses between two neurons the postsynaptic region may be found on the dendrites or cell body. Immediately behind the postsynaptic membrane is an elaborate complex of interlinked proteins called the postsynaptic density (PSD). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure Proteins in the PSD are involved in anchoring and trafficking neurotransmitter receptors and modulating the activity of these receptors. The receptors and PSDs are often found in specialized protrusions from the main dendritic shaft called dendritic spines. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure Synapses may be described as symmetric or asymmetric. When examined under an electron microscope, asymmetric synapses are characterized by rounded vesicles in the presynaptic cell, and a prominent postsynaptic density. Asymmetric synapses are typically excitatory. Symmetric synapses in contrast have flattened or elongated vesicles, and do not contain a prominent postsynaptic density. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Structure 1 The 'synaptic cleft' is an gap between the pre- and postsynaptic cells that is about 20nm wide. The small volume of the cleft allows neurotransmitter concentration to be raised and lowered rapidly. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview 1 Here is a summary of the sequence of events that take place in synaptic transmission from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic cell. Each step is explained in more detail below. Note that with the exception of the final step, the entire process may run only a few hundred microseconds, in the fastest synapses. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview #The process begins with a wave of electrochemical excitation called an action potential traveling along the membrane of the presynaptic cell, until it reaches the synapse. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview #The electrical depolarization of the membrane at the synapse causes channels to open that are permeable to calcium ions. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview #Calcium ions flow through the presynaptic membrane, rapidly increasing the calcium concentration in the interior. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview 1 #The high calcium concentration activates a set of calcium-sensitive proteins attached to Synaptic vesicle|vesicles that contain a neurotransmitter chemical. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview 1 #These proteins change shape, causing the membranes of some docked vesicles to fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic cell, thereby opening the vesicles and dumping their neurotransmitter contents into the synaptic cleft, the narrow space between the membranes of the pre- and postsynaptic cells. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview 1 #The neurotransmitter diffuses within the cleft. Some of it escapes, but some of it binds to chemical receptor molecules located on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview #The binding of neurotransmitter causes the receptor molecule to be activated in some way. Several types of activation are possible, as described in more detail below. In any case, this is the key step by which the synaptic process affects the behavior of the postsynaptic cell. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview #Due to Johnson–Nyquist noise|thermal vibration, neurotransmitter molecules eventually break loose from the receptors and drift away. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Overview 1 #The neurotransmitter is either reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell, and then repackaged for future release, or else it is broken down metabolically. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Neurotransmitter release Within the presynaptic nerve terminal, vesicle (biology)|vesicles containing neurotransmitter are localized near the synaptic membrane 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Neurotransmitter release As a whole, the protein complex or structure that mediates the docking and fusion of presynaptic vesicles is called the active zone.Craig C 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Receptor binding 1 The second way a receptor can affect membrane potential is by modulating the production of second messenger system|chemical messengers inside the postsynaptic neuron https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Termination After a neurotransmitter molecule binds to a receptor molecule, it must be removed to allow for the postsynaptic membrane to continue to relay subsequent EPSPs and/or IPSPs. This removal can happen through one or more processes: 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Termination 1 *The neurotransmitter may diffuse away due to thermally-induced oscillations of both it and the receptor, making it available to be broken down metabolically outside the neuron or to be reabsorbed.Sherwood L.,stikawy (2007). Human Physiology 6e: From Cells to Systems https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Termination 1 *Enzymes within the subsynaptic membrane may inactivate/metabolize the neurotransmitter. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Termination 1 *Reuptake pumps may actively pump the neurotransmitter back into the presynaptic axon terminal for reprocessing and re-release following a later action potential. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Synaptic strength The strength of a synapse has been defined by Sir Bernard Katz as the product of (presynaptic) release probability pr, quantal size q (the postsynaptic response to the release of a single neurotransmitter vesicle, a 'quantum'), and n, the number of release sites. Unitary connection usually refers to an unknown number of individual synapses connecting a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic neuron. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Receptor desensitization 1 Desensitization of the postsynaptic receptors is a decrease in response to the same neurotransmitter stimulus. It means that the strength of a synapse may in effect diminish as a train of action potentials arrive in rapid succession – a phenomenon that gives rise to the so-called frequency dependence of synapses. The nervous system exploits this property for computational purposes, and can tune its synapses through such means as phosphorylation of the proteins involved. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Synaptic plasticity Synaptic plasticity can be either homosynaptic (occurring at a single synapse) or heterosynaptic (occurring at multiple synapses). 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Volume transmission 1 The extrasynaptic activity of a neurotransmitter is known as volume transmission https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Volume transmission Recent work indicates that volume transmission may be the predominant mode of interaction for some special types of neurons. In the mammalian cerebral cortex, a class of neurons called neurogliaform cells can inhibit other nearby cortical neurons by releasing the neurotransmitter GABA into the extracellular space. Approximately 78% of neurogliaforms do not form classical synapses. This may be the first definitive example of neurons communicating chemically where synapses are not present. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Relationship to electrical synapses As opposed to chemical synapses, the postsynaptic potential in electrical synapses is not caused by the opening of ion channels by chemical transmitters, but rather by direct electrical coupling between both neurons 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Relationship to electrical synapses In some cases electrical synapses can be found within the same terminal of a chemical synapse, as in Mauthner cells. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - Effects of drugs 1 For example, curare is a poison that stops acetylcholine from depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane, causing paralysis https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic cleft - History 1 During the 1950s, Bernard Katz and Paul Fatt observed spontaneous miniature synaptic currents at the frog neuromuscular junction https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory post-synaptic potentials - Characteristics and Filtering of EPSPs 1 Amplitude and timeto-peak are two important characteristics of an EPSP https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle 1 PMID 19202060 In the human brain region V1 synaptic vesicles have an average diameter of 39.5 nanometers with a standard deviation of 5.1 nanometers. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - History 1 With the advent of modern Electron microscope|electron microscopic techniques in the early 1950s, nerve endings were found to contain a large number of electron-lucent vesicles. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - History The term synaptic vesicle was first introduced by De Robertis and Bennett in 1954. This was shortly after transmitter release at the frog neuromuscular junction was found to induce postsynaptic miniature end-plate potentials that were ascribed to the release of discrete packages of neurotransmitter (quanta) from the presynaptic nerve terminal. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - History 1 It was thus reasonable to hypothesize that the transmitter substance (acetylcholine) was contained in such vesicles, which by a secretory mechanism would release their contents into the chemical synapse|synaptic cleft (vesicle hypothesis). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - History 1 The isolation of highly purified fractions of cholinergic synaptic vesicles from the ray Torpedo (genus)|Torpedo electric organ was an important step forward in the study of vesicle biochemistry and function. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition 1 Synaptic vesicles are relatively simple because only a limited number of proteins fit into a sphere of 40nm diameter. Purified vesicles have a protein:phospholipid ratio of 1:3 with a lipid composition of 40% phosphatidylcholine, 32% phosphatidylethanolamine, 12% phosphatidylserine, 5% phosphatidylinositol, and 10% https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition 1 Synaptic vesicles contain two classes of obligatory components: transport proteins involved in neurotransmitter uptake, and trafficking proteins that participate in synaptic vesicle exocytosis, endocytosis, and recycling. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition Vesicular transport protein|Vesicular transporters move neurotransmitters from the cells' cytoplasm into the synaptic vesicles 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition 1 *Trafficking proteins are more complex. They include intrinsic membrane proteins, peripherally bound proteins, and proteins such as SNARE (protein)|SNAREs. These proteins do not share a characteristic that would make them identifiable as synaptic vesicle proteins, and little is known about how these proteins are specifically deposited into synaptic vesicles. Many but not all of the known synaptic vesicle proteins interact with non-vesicular proteins and are linked to specific functions. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition 1 The stoichiometry for the movement of different neurotransmitters into a vesicle is given in the following table. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Effects of neurotoxins 1 Some neurotoxins, such as batrachotoxin, are known to destroy synaptic vesicles. The tetanus toxin damages vesicleassociated membrane proteins (VAMP), a type of v-SNARE, while botulinum toxins damage t-SNARES and v-SNARES and thus inhibit synaptic transmission.Kandel et al., 2000 A Spider bite|spider toxin called alpha-Latrotoxin binds to neurexins, damaging vesicles and causing massive release of neurotransmitters. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Vesicle pools 1 Vesicles in the nerve terminal are grouped into three pools: the readily releasable pool, the recycling pool, and the reserve pool https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle Synaptic vesicle components are initially trafficked to the synapse using members of the kinesin motor family. In Caenorhabditis elegans|C. elegans the major motor for synaptic vesicles is UNC-104. There is also evidence that other proteins such as UNC-16/Sunday Driver regulate the use of motors for transport of synaptic vesicles. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle Once at the synapse, synaptic vesicles are loaded with a neurotransmitter. Loading of transmitter is an active process requiring a neurotransmitter transporter and a proton pump ATPase that provides an electrochemical gradient. These transporters are selective for different classes of transmitters. Characterization of unc-17 and unc-47, which encode the vesicular acetylcholine transporter and vesicular GABA transporter have been described to date. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle 1 Many proteins on synaptic vesicles and at release sites have been identified, however none of the identified protein interactions between the vesicle proteins and release site proteins can account for the docking phase of the cycle https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle 1 Priming prepares the synaptic vesicle so that they are able to fuse rapidly in response to a calcium influx https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle 1 Similarly, mutants in Drosophila and knockouts in mice indicate that these SNARES play a critical role in synaptic exocytosis. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle This accounts for the re-uptake of synaptic vesicles in the full contact fusion model. However, other studies have been compiling evidence suggesting that this type of fusion and endocytosis is not always the case. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Vesicle recycling Two leading mechanisms of action are thought to be responsible for synaptic vesicle recycling: full collapse fusion and the kissand-run method. Both mechanisms begin with the formation of the synaptic pore that releases transmitter to the extracellular space. After release of the neurotransmitter, the pore can either dilate fully so that the vesicle collapses completely into the synaptic membrane, or it can close rapidly and pinch off the membrane to generate kiss-and-run fusion. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Full collapse fusion 1 Studies suggest that the entire cycle of exocytosis, retrieval, and reformation of the synaptic vesicles requires less than 1 minute. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Full collapse fusion With the help of synaptobrevin on the synaptic vesicle, the t-SNARE complex on the membrane, made up of syntaxin and SNAP-25, can dock, prime, and fuse the synaptic vesicle into the membrane. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Full collapse fusion 1 In turn, these neurotoxins prevent synaptic vesicles from completing full collapse fusion https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Kiss-and-run 1 This reinforces the idea of a kiss-andrun fashion, the synaptic vesicle releases its payload and then separates from the membrane. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Modulation Cells thus appear to have at least two mechanisms to follow for membrane recycling. Under certain conditions, cells can switch from one mechanism to the other. Slow, conventional, full collapse fusion predominates the synaptic membrane when Ca2+ levels are low, and the fast kiss-and-run mechanism is followed when Ca2+ levels are high. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Modulation Ales et al. showed that raised concentrations of extracellular calcium ions shift the preferred mode of recycling and synaptic vesicle release to the kiss-and-run mechanism in a calciumconcentration-dependent manner. Its been proposed that during secretion of neurotransmitters at synapses, the mode of exocytosis is modulated by 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic vesicle - Modulation Kiss-and-run also seems to be the dominate mechanism at the beginning of stimulus trains, reflecting that this mechanism has a high release probability. Its incidence is also increased by rapid firing and stimulation, suggesting that this response is quicker in kinetics. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Muscarinic - Presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction 1 It's now known they also appear on the pre-synaptic membrane of somatic neurons in the neuro-muscular junction, where they are involved in the regulation of acetylcholine release. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html SK channel - Synaptic plasticity and long term potentiation In addition to being activated by calcium flow through voltage-gated calcium channels, SK channels can be activated by calcium flowing through NMDA receptors, which occurs after depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Reflex arc - Monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic 1 When a reflex arc consists of only two neurons in an animal (one sensory neuron, and one motor neuron), it is defined as 'monosynaptic'. Monosynaptic refers to the presence of a single chemical synapse. In the case of peripheral muscle reflexes (patellar reflex, achilles reflex), brief stimulation to the muscle spindle results in contraction of the agonist or https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Reflex arc - Monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic By contrast, in 'polysynaptic' reflex pathways, one or more interneurons connect afferent nerve|afferent (sensory system|sensory) and efferent nerve|efferent (motor system|motor) signals. All but the most simple reflexes are polysynaptic, allowing processing or inhibition of polysynaptic reflexes within the brain. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion - Presynaptic 1 Presynaptic parasympathetic fibers originate in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, the parasympathetic motor nucleus associated with the oculomotor nucleus in the brainstem https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion - Postsynaptic 1 Postsynaptic parasympathetic fibers leave the ciliary ganglion in multiple (six to ten) 'short ciliary nerves'. These nerves enter the posterior aspect of the eyeball to innervate the 'sphincter pupillae' and 'ciliaris' muscles. The sphincter pupillae constricts the iris. The ciliaris muscle changes the shape of the lens, allowing the eye to focus on nearby objects (Accommodation (eye)|accommodation). Neither of these muscles is under voluntary control. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic potential 1 Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP’s) hyperpolarize the membrane and move it farther away from the threshold https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic potential 1 This is the case for both excitatory and Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic potential Synaptic potentials are not static. The concept of synaptic plasticity refers to the changes in synaptic potential. A synaptic potential may get stronger or weaker over time depending on a few factors. The quantity of neurotransmitters released can play a large role in the future strength of that synapse’s potential. The receptors on the post-synaptic side also play a role, both in their numbers, composition, and 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic potential The enhancement of synaptic potential would mean that fewer would be needed to have the same or larger effect, which could have farreaching medical uses 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic potential 1) http://courses.washingt on.edu/conj/neuron/pos tsynaptic.htm. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic potential 1 3) Nicoll, R.A. Roche, K.W. (2013). Long-term potentiation. Peeling the onion. Neuropharmacology, 7418-22. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic potential 1 4) Journal of Neuroscience. Enhanced cAMP Response Element-Binding Protein Activity Increases Neuronal Excitability, Hippocampal Long-Term Potentiation and Classical Eyeblink Conditioning in Alert Behaving Mice. Agnes Gruart, Eva Benito, Jose M. Delgado-Garcia, and Angel Barco. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic potential 1 5) Neuroscience. Second Edition. Purves D., Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, et al, editors. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates, 2001. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Kevin Levin - Synaptak 1 'Synaptak' is a floating telekinetic brain in a jar with a computerized face and tentacles and he is the second in command of the group. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Kevin Levin - Synaptak 1 Synaptak had the abilitiy to levitate and has psychic powers of telepathy; being able to read the thoughts of others, telekinesis; being able to lift opponents and objects up with the use of his mind, and can project mind blasts and force fields from his brain https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Kevin Levin - Synaptak In The Vengeance of Vilgax Pt. 1, Synaptak and Tini are defeated by Vilgax before his fight with Ultimos. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Non-dual - Vijñapti-mātra One of the main features of Yogācāra philosophy is the concept of vijñapti-mātra. It is often used interchangeably with the term citta-mātra, but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is consciousness-only or mind-only. Several modern researchers object this translation, and the accompanying label of absolute idealism or idealistic monism. A better translation for vijñapti-mātra is representation-only. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Non-dual - Vijñapti-mātra 1 According to Kochumuttom, Yogacara is a realistic pluralism. It does not deny the existence of individual beings: https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Non-dual - Vijñapti-mātra 1 Vijñapti-mātra then means mere representation of consciousness: https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Non-dual - Vijñapti-mātra 1 The term vijñapti-mātra replaced the more metaphysical term citta-mātra used in the Lankavatara Sutra https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Developmental plasticity - Synaptic plasticity This regulatory process allows the strengthening of important or frequently used synaptic connections while reducing the amount of weak connections. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Environmental enrichment (neural) - Synaptogenesis Rats raised with environmental enrichment have thicker cerebral cortices(3.3–7%) that contain 25% more synapses 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html SnapTag 1 'SnapTag', invented by SpyderLynk, is a Mobile barcode|2D mobile barcode alternative similar to a QR code, but that uses an icon or company logo and code ring rather than a square pattern of black dots. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html SnapTag 1 Similar to a QR code, SnapTags can be used to take consumers to a brand’s website, but can also facilitate Mobile purchasing|mobile purchases, coupon downloads, free sample requests, video views, promotional entries, Facebook like#Like|Facebook Likes, Pinterest Pins, Twitter Follows, Posts and Tweets. SnapTags offer back-end data https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html SnapTag - Use in mobile operating systems 1 SnapTags can be used in Google's mobile Android operating system and iOS devices (iPhone/iPod/iPad) using The SnapTag Reader App or third party apps that have integrated the SnapTag Reader SDK. SnapTags can also be used by standard camera phones by taking a picture of the SnapTag and texting it to the designated short code or email address. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager 'Synaptic' is a GTK+-based graphical user interface for Advanced Packaging Tool (APT). APT is the Package management system used by Debian and its derivatives. Synaptic is usually used on systems based on Deb (file format)|deb packages but can also be used on systems based on RPM Package Manager|RPM packages. It can be used to install, remove and upgrade software packages and to add Software repository|repositories. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features 1 * Install, remove, upgrade and downgrade single and multiple packages https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features * Find packages by name, description and several other attributes 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features * Select packages by status, section, name or a custom filter 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features 1 * Sort packages by name, status, size or version https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features * Browse available online documentation related to a package 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features 1 * Lock packages to the current version https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features 1 * Built-in terminal emulator for the package manager https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features * Allows creation of download scripts (see Usage for more details) 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features 1 It also has the following features: https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features 1 * Configure packages through the debconf system https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Features When one installs a new package, Aptitude (software)|Aptitude, like Synaptic, automatically installs required packages (called dependencies). But when one removes a manually installed package, Aptitude also has the ability to remove the no-longer-used packages that were automatically installed. The same effect, however, can be achieved through a terminal with an apt command: apt-get autoremove. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - Usage 1 The package manager enables the user to install, to upgrade or to remove software packages. To install a package a user must search for the program they want and mark it for installation. Changes are not applied instantly; the user must first mark all changes and then apply them. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptic Package Manager - History Synaptic development was funded by Conectiva, which asked Alfredo Kojima, then an employee, to write a graphical front-end for APT, continuing the work initiated with the creation of the APT RPM back-end, apt-rpm. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone In Norse mythology, 'Loki' (), 'Loptr', or 'Hveðrungr' is a Æsir|god or jötunn (or both) 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone 1 Loki's relation with the gods varies by source. Loki sometimes assists the gods and sometimes causes problems for them. Loki is a Shapeshifting|shape shifter and in separate incidents he appears in the form of a salmon, mare, Seal (mammal)|seal, a Fly (animal)|fly, and possibly Þökk|an elderly woman. Loki's positive relations with the gods end with his role in engineering the https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda, the goddess Skaði is responsible for placing a serpent above him while he is bound 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone 1 Loki may be depicted on the Snaptun Stone, the Loki#Kirkby Stephen Stone and Gosforth Cross|Kirkby Stephen Stone, and the Gosforth Cross https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Names 1 The etymology of the name Loki has yet to be solved. It may be related to Old Norse luka, meaning close (potentially pointing to Loki's role at Ragnarök).Simek (2007:195). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Names In various poems from the Poetic Edda (stanza 2 of Lokasenna, stanza 41 of Hyndluljóð, and stanza 26 of Fjölsvinnsmál), and sections of the Prose Edda (chapter 32 of Gylfaginning, stanza 8 of Haustlöng, and stanza 1 of Þórsdrápa) Loki is alternately referred to as Loptr, which is generally considered derived from Old Norse lopt meaning air, and therefore points to an association with the air.Simek (2007:197). 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Names 1 The name Hveðrungr (Old Norse '?roarer') is also used in reference to Loki, occurring in names for Hel (such as in Ynglingatal; hveðrungs mær) and in reference to Fenrir (as in Völuspa).Simek (2007:166). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Poetic Edda 1 In the Poetic Edda, Loki appears (or is referenced) in the poems Völuspá, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Reginsmál, Baldrs draumar, and Hyndluljóð. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Völuspá In stanza 35 of the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá, a völva tells Odin that, among many other things, she sees Sigyn sitting very unhappily with her bound husband, Loki, under a grove of hot springs.Larrington (1998:8). In stanza 51, during the events of Ragnarök, Loki appears free from his bonds and is referred to as the brother of Býleistr (here transcribed as Byleist): 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Völuspá 1 :A ship journeys from the east, Muspell's people are coming, https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Völuspá 1 :There are the monstrous brood with all the raveners, https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Völuspá 1 In stanza 54, after consuming Odin and being killed by Odin's son Víðarr, Fenrir is described as Loki's kinsman.Larrington (1998:11). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 The poem Lokasenna (Old Norse Loki's Quarrel) centers around Loki flyting with other gods; Loki puts forth two stanzas of insults while the receiving figure responds with a single stanza, and then another figure chimes in https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 Loki comes out of the woods, and meets Eldir outside of the hall https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 Breaking the silence, Loki says that, thirsty, he had come to these halls from a long way away to ask the gods for a drink of the famous mead https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 :Do you remember, Odin, when in bygone days https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 :You said you would never drink ale https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 Odin then asks his silent son Víðarr to sit up, so that Loki (here referred to as the wolf's father) may sit at the feast, and so that he may not speak words of blame to the gods in Ægir's hall https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 The goddess Iðunn interrupts, asking Bragi, as a service to his relatives and adopted relatives, not to say words of blame to Loki in Ægir's hall https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 Odin says that Loki must be insane to make Gefjun his enemy, as her wisdom about the fates of men may equal Odin's own https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna Frigg, a major goddess and Odin's wife, says that what Loki and Odin did in the ancient past should not be spoken of in front of others, and that ancient matters should always remain hidden 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 The goddess Freyja declares that Loki must be mad, stating that Frigg knows all fate, yet she does not speak it https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna Loki tells Njörðr to be silent, recalling Njörðr's status as once having been a hostage from the Vanir to the Æsir during the Æsir-Vanir War, that the daughters of Hymir once used Njörðr as a pisspot, urinating in his mouth (an otherwise unattested comment) 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna The god Tyr defends Freyr, to which Loki replies that Tyr should be silent, for Tyr cannot deal straight with people, and points out that it was Loki's son, the wolf Fenrir, who tore Tyr's hand off 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 Freyr himself interrupts at this point, and says that he sees a wolf lying before a river mouth, and that, unless Loki is immediately silent, like the wolf, Loki shall also be bound until Ragnarök https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna The god Heimdallr says that Loki is drunk and witless, and asks Loki why he won't stop speaking 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 Sif, wife of Thor, goes forth and pours Loki a glass of mead into a crystal cup in a prose narrative https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna Thor arrives, and tells Loki to be silent, referring to him as an evil creature, stating that with his hammer Mjöllnir he will silence Loki by hammering his head from his shoulders 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna In response to Thor, Loki says that he spoke before the Æsir, and before the sons of the Æsir what his spirit urged him to say, yet before Thor alone he will leave, as he knows that Thor does strike. Loki ends the poetic verses of Lokasenna with a final stanza: 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 :Ale you brewed, Ægir, and you will never again hold a feast; https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 :all your possessions which are here inside— https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna 1 :and may your back be burnt!Larrington (1998:95). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna Following this final stanza a prose section details that after Loki left the hall, he disguised himself as a salmon and hid in the waterfall of Franangrsfors, where the Æsir caught him 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða 1 In the poem Þrymskviða, Thor wakes and finds that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir, is missing. Thor turns to Loki first, and tells him that nobody knows that the hammer has been stolen. The two then go to the court of the goddess Freyja, and Thor asks her if he may borrow her feather cloak so that he may attempt to find Mjöllnir. Freyja agrees, saying she'd lend it https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða 1 In Jötunheimr, the jötunn Þrymr sits on a tumulus|burial mound, plaiting golden collars for his female dogs, and trimming the manes of his horses https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða Thor asks Loki if his efforts were successful, and that Loki should tell him while he's still in the air as tales often escape a sitting man, and the man lying down often barks out lies 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða 1 As a result, the gods and goddesses meet and hold a Thing (assembly)|thing to discuss and debate the matter https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða After riding together in Thor's Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr|goatdriven chariot, the two, disguised, arrive in Jötunheimr. Þrymr commands the jötnar in his hall to spread straw on the benches, for Freyja has arrived to be his wife. Þrymr recounts his treasured animals and objects, stating that Freyja was all that he was missing in his 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða 1 Early in the evening, the disguised Loki and Thor meet in the with the Þrymr and the assembled jötnar https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða 1 The wretched sister of the jötnar appears, asks for a bridal gift from Freyja, and the jötnar bring out Mjöllnir to sanctify the bride, to lay it on her lap, and marry the two by the hand of the goddess Vár. Thor laughs internally when he sees the hammer, takes hold of it, strikes Þrymr, beats all of the jötnar, and kills the older sister of the jötnar.Larrington (1998:101). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál 1 Loki appears in both prose and the first six stanzas of the poem Reginsmál https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál 1 While the three gods are at the falls, Ótr (in the form of an otter) catches a salmon and eats it on a river bank, his eyes shut, when Loki hits and kills him with a stone https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál 1 Loki is sent to retrieve the gold, and Loki goes to the goddess Rán, borrows her net, and then goes back to the Andvara-falls https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál 1 Loki looks over the gold that Andvari possesses, and after Andvari hands over all of his gold, Andvari holds on to but a single ring; the ring Andvarinaut, which Loki also takes. Andvari, now in the form of a dwarf, goes into a rock, and tells Loki that the gold will result in the death of two brothers, will cause strife between eight princes, and will be useless to https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál Loki returns, and the three gods give Hreidmar the money from the gold hoard and flatten out the otter skin, stretch out its legs, and heap gold atop it, covering it. Hreidmar looks it over, and notices a single hair that has not been covered. Hreidmar demands that it be covered as well. Odin puts forth the ring Andvarinaut, covering the single hair. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál 1 Loki states that they have now handed over the gold, and that gold is cursed as Andvari is, and that it will be the death of Hreidmar and Regin both https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Baldrs draumar In Baldr draumar, Odin has awoken a deceased völva in Hel (location)|Hel, and questions her repeatedly about his son Baldr's bad dreams. Loki is mentioned in stanza 14, the final stanza of the poem, where the völva tells Odin to ride home, to be proud of himself, and that no one else will come visit until Loki is loose, escaped from his bonds and the onset of Ragnarök.Larrington (1998:245). 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Hyndluljóð Loki is referenced in two stanzas in Völuspá hin skamma, found within the poem Hyndluljóð. The first stanza notes that Loki produced the wolf with the jötunn Angrboða, that Loki himself gave birth to the horse Sleipnir by the stallion Svaðilfari, and that Loki (referred to as the brother of Býleistr) thirdly gave birth to the worst of all marvels. This stanza is followed by: 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Hyndluljóð 1 :Loki ate some of the heart, the thoughtstone of a woman, https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Hyndluljóð :roasted on a Tilia|linden-wood fire, he found it half-cooked; 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Snaptun Stone - Hyndluljóð 1 In the second of the two stanzas, Loki is referred to as Lopt. Loki's consumption of a woman's heart is otherwise unattested.Larrington (1998:296). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neurexin - Role in synaptic maturation 1 While neuroligin and neurexin are not required for synaptic formation, they are essential components for proper function. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex The synaptonemal complex is a tripartite structure consisting of two parallel lateral regions and a central element. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex Three specific components of the synaptonemal complex have been characterized: SC protein-1 (SYCP1), SC protein-2 (SYCP2), and SC protein-3 (SYCP3). In humans, the SYCP1 gene is on chromosome 1p13; the SYCP2 gene is on chromosome 20q13.33; and the gene for SYCP3 is on chromosome 12q. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex 1 The SCs can be seen with the light microscope using silver staining or with immunofluorescence https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex 1 techniques that label the proteins SYCP3 or SYCP2. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex 1 This tripartite structure is seen during the pachytene stage of the first meiotic prophase, both in males and in females during gametogenesis. Previous to the pachytene stage, during leptonema, the lateral elements begin to form and they initiate and complete their pairing during the zygotene stage. After pachynema ends, the SC usually becomes disassembled and can no https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex 1 Formation of the SC usually reflects the pairing or synapsis of homologous chromosomes and may be used to probe the presence of pairing abnormalities in individuals carrying chromosomal abnormalities, either in number or in the chromosomal structure. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex The sex chromosomes in male mammals show only partial synapsis as they usually form only a short SC in the XY pair. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex The SC shows very little structural variability among eukaryotic organisms despite some significant protein differences. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex 1 In many organisms the SC carries one or several recombination nodules associated to its central space. These nodules are thought to correspond to mature genetic recombination events or crossovers. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex 1 In cell development the synaptonemal complex disappears during the late prophase of meiosis I. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Synaptonemal complex One aspect of meiosis research (in genetics, molecular biology, and reproductive medicine) involving synaptonemal complexes is how they (or what they do) can be affected and damaged by chemical exposure, specifically by toxins like bisphenol A (an experiment at Harvard Medical School by Dr 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission # In neurons that are involved in chemical synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters are synthesized either in the neuronal cell body, or within the presynaptic terminal, depending on the type of neurotransmitter being synthesized and the location of enzymes involved in its synthesis. These neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles that remain bound near the membrane by synapsin|calciuminfluenced proteins. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission # In order to trigger the process of chemical synaptic transmission, upstream activity causes an action potential to invade the presynaptic terminal. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission # This depolarizing current reaches the presynaptic terminal, and the membrane depolarization that it causes there initiates the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels present on the presynaptic membrane. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission 1 # There is high concentration of calcium in the synaptic cleft between the two participating neurons (presynaptic and postsynaptic). This difference in calcium concentration between the synaptic cleft and the inside of the presynaptic terminal establishes a strong concentration gradient that drives the calcium into the presynaptic terminal upon opening of these voltage-gated calcium channels. This influx of calcium into the presynaptic terminal is necessary for neurotransmitter release. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission 1 # After entering the presynaptic terminal, the calcium binds a protein called synaptotagmin, which is located on the membrane of the synaptic vesicles. This protein interacts with other proteins called SNARE (protein)|SNAREs in order to induce vesicle fusion with the presynaptic membrane. As a result of this vesicle fusion, the neurotransmitters that had been packaged into the synaptic vesicle are released into the synapse, where they diffuse across the synaptic cleft. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission The selective permeability of these channels allow certain ions to move along their electrochemical gradients, inducing a current across the postsynaptic membrane that determines an excitatory or inhibitory response. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory neuron - Responses of the postsynaptic neuron 1 On the other hand, if the reversal potential of the receptor to which the neurotransmitter binds is lower than the threshold potential, an inhibitory postsynaptic potential will occur (IPSP). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Excitatory neuron - Responses of the postsynaptic neuron In a similar way, the postsynaptic neuron can sum together EPSPs from multiple synapses with other neurons in a process called spatial summation. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms Some aptronyms are irony|ironic rather than descriptive, being called 'inaptronyms' by Gene Weingarten of the Washington Post[http://www.washingtonpost.com /wpdyn/content/discussion/2006/07/11/ DI2006071100616.html]. A notable example is the former Archbishop of Manila, Jaime Sin|Jaime L. Sin who in 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms * Lance Armstrong, a Tour de Francewinning cyclist, became famous because of leg, not arm, strength. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 * John Balance, English musician, died after falling from a two story balcony at his home. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 * Grant Balfour, MLB pitcher (closer), although as a pitcher base on balls|ball four is generally not a good thing https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 * Frank Beard (musician)|Frank Beard, the only member of ZZ Top to not have a beard https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 * Don Black (white nationalist)|Don Black, White supremacist https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms * Edward Cocaine, arrested on drug possession, but for Xanax 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 * Samuel Foote, a comic actor who lost a leg in a horseriding accident in 1766, and made jokes on stage about “Foote and leg, and leg and foot”[http://www.thetls.co.uk/tls/public/article1179826.ece] https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 * Dexter Fowler, MLB outfielder (a batter can't get a hit if all he hits are foul balls) https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 * Hudson Freeze, co-discoverer of Thermus aquaticus, a bacteria that thrives in hot water https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 * Teller (magician), the usually silent half of the comedy magic duo Penn Teller https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms * Two anti-Christian black metal musicians, Gaahl and Varg Vikernes were given the name Kristian at birth. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Charactonym - Inaptronyms 1 Place names can also be aptronyms, perhaps unintentionally, such as the former Liberty Jail, so called because of its location in Liberty, Missouri, USA. Business names can be aptronyms too, such as Brownie Septic Systems (now Brownie Environmental Services) of Orlando, Florida, named after the owner. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Naptown Roller Girls 1 The home bouts of the Naptown Roller Girls are held in the Fairgrounds Coliseum|Pepsi Coliseum at the Indiana State Fairgrounds in Indianapolis https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Naptown Roller Girls - Current teams 1 The league is composed of three home teams: The Tornado Sirens (is the ATeam), The Warning Belles (is the Bteam) and The 3rd Alarm (is the Cteam). https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neuromuscular junction disease - Postsynaptic structure 1 Post synaptically the membrane is folded into secondary synaptic folds with a concentration of around 20,000 receptors per micrometer https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neuromuscular junction disease - Presynaptic One discovered type of congenital myasthenia gravis can affect the junction presynaptically by a mutation in the gene encoding choline acetyl transferase 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neuromuscular junction disease - Presynaptic 1 Other ion channels can also be disrupted, such as the potassium channels causing inefficient repolarization at the presynaptic membrane as in neuromyotonia. https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html Neuromuscular junction disease - Postsynaptic Here is a list of the diseases: Myasthenia Gravis, Neonatal Myasthenia Gravis, Drug Induced Myasthenia Gravis and several types of Congenital myasthenia where the product of the mutated gene is a postsynaptic protein. 1 https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html For More Information, Visit: • https://store.theartofservice.co m/itil-2011-foundationcomplete-certification-kitfourth-edition-study-guideebook-and-online-course.html The Art of Service https://store.theartofservice.com