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Approaches to brain simulation[edit]
Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain
at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom),
along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year.
1
Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other
approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on
Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase
coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum
processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to
the QM wave equation.
EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural
networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina.
Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for
research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being
conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the
premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by
placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position.
In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected:
"Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by
trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers
in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual
Estimates of how much processing power
is needed to emulate a human brain at
verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and
Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom),
along with the fastest supercomputer from
TOP500 mapped by year.
https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html
Approaches to brain simulation[edit]
Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain
at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom),
along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year.
1
Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other
approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on
Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase
coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum
processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to
the QM wave equation.
EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural
networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina.
Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for
research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being
conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the
premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by
placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position.
In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected:
"Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by
trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers
in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual
Although direct brain emulation using
artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a
common approach, there are other
approaches. An alternative artificial
brain implementation could be based on
Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT)
non linear phase
coherence/decoherence principles. The
analogy has been made to quantum
processes through the core synaptic
algorithm which has strong similarities
to the QM wave equation.
https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html
Approaches to brain simulation[edit]
Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain
at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom),
along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year.
1
Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other
approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on
Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase
coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum
processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to
the QM wave equation.
EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural
networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina.
Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for
research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being
conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the
premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by
placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position.
In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected:
"Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by
trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers
in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual
EvBrain is a form of evolutionary
software that can evolve "brainlike"
neural networks, such as the network
immediately behind the retina.
https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html
Approaches to brain simulation[edit]
Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain
at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom),
along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year.
1
Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other
approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on
Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase
coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum
processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to
the QM wave equation.
EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural
networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina.
Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for
research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being
conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the
premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by
placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position.
In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected:
"Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by
trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers
in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual
Since November 2008, IBM received a
$4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for
research into creating intelligent
computers. The Blue Brain project is
being conducted with the assistance of
IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on
the premise that it is possible to
artificially link the neurons "in the
computer" by placing thirty million
synapses in their proper threedimensional position.
https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html
Approaches to brain simulation[edit]
Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain
at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom),
along
with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year.
1
Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other
approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on
Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase
coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum
processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to
the QM wave equation.
EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural
networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina.
Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for
research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being
conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the
premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by
placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position.
In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected:
"Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by
trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers
in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual
In March 2008, Blue Brain project was
progressing faster than expected:
"Consciousness is just a massive amount of
information being exchanged by trillions of
brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI
speculate that computers in connection with
Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed
human intellectual capacity by around 2015,
and that it is likely that we will be able to
download the human brain at some time
around 2050.
https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html
Approaches to brain simulation[edit]
Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain
at verious levels (from Ray Kurzweil, and Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom),
along with the fastest supercomputer from TOP500 mapped by year.
1
Although direct brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a highperformance computing engine is a common approach, there are other
approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on
Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase
coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum
processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to
the QM wave equation.
EvBrain is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural
networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina.
Since November 2008, IBM received a $4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for
research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being
conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne. The project is based on the
premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by
placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position.
In March 2008, Blue Brain project was progressing faster than expected:
"Consciousness is just a massive amount of information being exchanged by
trillions of brain cells." Some proponents of strong AI speculate that computers
in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual
There are good reasons to believe that,
regardless of implementation strategy, the
predictions of realising artificial brains in
the near future are optimistic
https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html
Screenless - Synaptic interface
Synaptic Interface
screenless video does not
use light at all
1
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Computational neuroscience - Memory and synaptic plasticity
1
Earlier models of memory are primarily based on
the postulates of Hebbian learning
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Computational neuroscience - Memory and synaptic plasticity
One of the major problems in
neurophysiological memory is how it is
maintained and changed through multiple
time scales
1
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Short-term memory - Synaptic Theory of Short-term memory
1
Various researchers have proposed that
stimuli are coded in short-term memory
using transmitter depletion
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Cellular neuroscience - Synaptic plasticity
1
Synaptic plasticity is the process whereby
strengths of synaptic connections are
altered. For example, long-term changes
in synaptic connection may result in more
postsynaptic receptors being embedded in
the postsynaptic membrane, resulting in
the strengthening of the synapse. Synaptic
plasticity is also found to be the neural
mechanism that underlies learning and
memory.
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Cellular neuroscience - Synaptic plasticity
The basic properties, activity and
regulation of membrane currents,
synaptic transmission and synaptic
plasticity, neurotransmisson,
neuroregensis, synaptogenesis and ion
channels of cells are a few other fields
studied by cellular neuroscientists.
1
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Cellular neuroscience - Synaptic plasticity
1
Tissue, cellular and subcellular anatomy
are studied to provide insight into mental
retardation at the Mental Retardation
Research Center MRRC Cellular
Neuroscience Core. Journals such as
Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience and
Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience are
published regarding cellular neuroscientific
topics.
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Brain simulation - Memory and synaptic plasticity
1
Earlier models of memory are primarily based on the
postulates of Hebbian learning
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Brain simulation - Memory and synaptic plasticity
One of the major problems in
neurophysiological memory is how it is
maintained and changed through multiple
time scales
1
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Endocannabinoid system - Induction of synaptic depression
Similar post-synaptic receptor
dependencies were found in the striatum,
but here both effects relied on presynaptic
CB1 receptors
1
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Neuroeducation - Synaptogenesis
1
In addition some critics of the Educational
Neuroscience approach have highlighted
limitations in applying the understanding of
early physiological brain development, in
particular synaptogenesis to educational
theory.
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Neuroeducation - Synaptogenesis
1
Secondly, the purported critical period
of birth to three years is derived from
research on rhesus monkeys, who
reach puberty at the age of three, and
assumes that the period of
synaptogenesis in humans exactly
mirrors that of monkeys
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Neuroeducation - Synaptogenesis
Many of these skills continue to
improve even after synaptic density
reaches adult levels, and thus the most
we can say is that synaptogenesis may
be necessary for the emergence of
these skills, but it cannot account
entirely for their continued
refinement.Goldman-Rakic, P.S.,
Development of cortical circuitry and
cognitive function
1
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Neuroeducation - Synaptogenesis
1
We know that synaptogenesis occurs,
and that the pattern of synaptogenesis
is important for normal brain function
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Synapses - Synaptic polarization
Phosphatidylinositol 4,5bisphosphate|PIP2 signalling regulated by
Inositol monophosphatase|IMPase plays
an integral role in synaptic polarity.
1
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Synapses - Synaptic polarization
1
This led to the conclusion that IMPase
is required for the correct localization
of synaptic protein components.
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Synapses - Synaptic polarization
1
This is genetic evidence that disruption of
IMPase alters the levels of PIP2 in
neurons; these results suggest that PIP2
signaling establishes polarized localization
of synaptic components in living neurons.
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AMPA receptor - Synaptic plasticity
Therefore, LTP can be induced
experimentally in a paired
electrophysiology|electrophysiological
recording when a presynaptic cell is
stimulated to release glutamate on a
postsynaptic cell that is depolarized
1
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AMPA receptor - Synaptic plasticity
1
The molecular basis for LTP has been
extensively studied, and AMPARs
have been shown to play an integral
role in the process.
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AMPA receptor - Synaptic plasticity
1
Both GluR1 and GluR2 play an important
role in synaptic plasticity. It is now known
that the underlying physiological correlate
for the increase in EPSP size is a
postsynaptic upregulation of AMPARs at
the membrane, which is accomplished
through the interactions of AMPARs with
many cellular proteins.
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AMPA receptor - Synaptic plasticity
Ligand binding causes the AMPARs to
open, and Na+ flows into the postsynaptic
cell, resulting in a depolarization
1
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Post-synaptic potentials
1
These are collectively referred to as
postsynaptic receptors, since they are
on the membrane of the postsynaptic
cell.
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Post-synaptic potentials - The role of ions
One way receptors can react to being
bound by a neurotransmitter is to open or
close an ion channel, allowing ions to
enter or leave the cell
1
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Post-synaptic potentials - Relation to action potentials
1
Neurons have a resting potential of about 70mV. If the opening of the ion channel
results in a net gain of positive charge
across the membrane, the membrane is
said to be depolarization|depolarized, as
the potential comes closer to zero. This is
an excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP), as it brings the neuron's potential
closer to its firing threshold (about -50mV).
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Post-synaptic potentials - Relation to action potentials
1
If, on the other hand, the opening of the
ion channel results in a net gain of
negative charge, this moves the potential
further from zero and is referred to as
Hyperpolarization
(biology)|hyperpolarization. This is an
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP), as
it changes the charge across the
membrane to be further from the firing
threshold.
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Post-synaptic potentials - Relation to action potentials
Neurotransmitters are not inherently
excitatory or inhibitory: different receptors
for the same neurotransmitter may open
different types of ion channels.
1
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Post-synaptic potentials - Relation to action potentials
If the postsynaptic cell is sufficiently
depolarized, an action potential will occur
1
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Post-synaptic potentials - Termination of postsynaptic potentials
Postsynaptic potentials begin to be
terminated when the neurotransmitter
detaches from its receptor. The receptor is
then free to return to its previous structural
state. Ion channels that had been opened
by the receptor when the neurotransmitter
was bound to it will now close. Once the
channels are closed, ions return to their
equilibrium states, and the membrane is
returned to its equilibrium potential.
1
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Post-synaptic potentials - Algebraic summation
1
Postsynaptic potentials are subject to summation,
spatially and/or temporally.
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Post-synaptic potentials - Algebraic summation
1
If the cell is receiving both inhibitory and
excitatory postsynaptic potentials, they
can cancel out, or one can be stronger
than the other, and the membrane
potential will change by the difference
between them.
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Post-synaptic potentials - Algebraic summation
1
'Temporal summation': When a cell
receives inputs that are close together
in time, they are also added together,
even if from the same synapse. Thus,
if a neuron receives an excitatory
postsynaptic potential, and then the
presynaptic neuron fires again,
creating another EPSP, then the
membrane of the postsynaptic cell is
depolarized by the total of the EPSPs.
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Amyloid precursor protein - Synaptic formation and repair
1
The most-substantiated role for APP is
in synaptic formation and repair; its
gene expression|expression is gene
regulation|upregulated during neuronal
cell differentiation|differentiation and
after neural injury
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Amyloid precursor protein - Synaptic formation and repair
APP knockout mice are viable and have
relatively minor phenotype|phenotypic effects
including impaired long-term potentiation and
memory loss without general neuron loss. On
the other hand, transgenic mice with
upregulated APP expression have also been
reported to show impaired long-term
potentiation.Matsuyama S, Teraoka R, Mori
H, Tomiyama T. (2007). Inverse correlation
between amyloid precursor protein and
synaptic plasticity in transgenic mice.
Neuroreport 18(10):1083-7. PMID 17558301
1
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Amyloid precursor protein - Synaptic formation and repair
The logical inference is that because Aβ
accumulates excessively in Alzheimer's
disease its precursor, APP, would be elevated
as well. However, neuronal cell bodies
contain less APP as a function of their
proximity to amyloid plaques. The data
indicate that this deficit in APP results from a
decline in production rather than an increase
in catalysis. Loss of a neuron's APP may
affect physiological deficits that contribute to
dementia.
1
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IPv6 transition mechanisms - NAPT-PT
1
While almost identical to NAT-PT,
Network Address Port Translation +
Protocol Translation which is also
described in RFC 2766 adds
translation of the ports as well as the
address. This is done primarily to
avoid two hosts on one side of the
mechanism from using the same
exposed port on the other side of the
mechanism, which could cause
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Chemical synapse - Synaptic strength
Learning and memory are believed to
result from long-term changes in synaptic
strength, via a mechanism known as
synaptic plasticity.
1
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Chemical synapse - Synaptic plasticity
Synaptic plasticity can be either
homosynaptic (occurring at a single
synapse) or heterosynaptic (occurring at
multiple synapses).
1
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Chemical synapse - Homosynaptic plasticity
1
It can result in either an increase or
decrease in synaptic strength.
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Chemical synapse - Homosynaptic plasticity
One example is neurons of the
sympathetic nervous system (SNS), which
release noradrenaline, which, besides
affecting postsynaptic receptors, also
affects presynaptic α2-adrenergic
receptors, inhibiting further release of
noradrenaline. This effect is utilized with
clonidine to perform inhibitory effects on
the SNS.
1
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Chemical synapse - Heterosynaptic plasticity
Heterosynaptic Plasticity (or also
heterotropic modulation) is a change
in synaptic strength that results from
the activity of other neurons. Again,
the plasticity can alter the number of
vesicles or their replenishment rate or
the relationship between calcium and
vesicle release. Additionally, it could
directly affect calcium influx.
Heterosynaptic plasticity can also be
postsynaptic in nature, affecting
receptor sensitivity.
1
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Chemical synapse - Heterosynaptic plasticity
One example is again neurons of the
sympathetic nervous system, which
release noradrenaline, which, in addition,
generates an inhibitory effect on
presynaptic terminals of neurons of the
parasympathetic nervous system.
1
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Chemical synapse - Integration of synaptic inputs
1
When action potentials from multiple
presynaptic neurons fire
simultaneously, or if a single
presynaptic neuron fires at a high
enough frequency, the EPSPs can
overlap and summate
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Chemical synapse - Integration of synaptic inputs
1
John Carew Eccles performed some of
the important early experiments on
synaptic integration, for which he
received the Nobel Prize for Physiology
or Medicine in 1963
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Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging
1
The synaptic tagging hypothesis attempts
to solve the cell's difficult problem of
synthesizing proteins in the cell body but
ensuring they only reach synapses that
have received LTP-inducing stimuli.
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Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging
1
The products of gene expression are
shipped globally throughout the cell,
but are only captured by synapses that
express the synaptic tag
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Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging
With both synapses expressing the
synaptic tag, both would capture the
protein products resulting in the
expression of LTP in both the strongly
stimulated and weakly stimulated
pathways.
1
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Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging
1
As before, this may be accomplished
through the synthesis of a local
synaptic tag following weak synaptic
stimulation.
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Holonomic brain theory - The synaptodendritic web
Many synaptic locations are
functionally bipolar, meaning they can
both send and receive impulses from
each neuron, distributing input and
output over the entire group of
dendrites.Pribram, K
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Holonomic brain theory - The synaptodendritic web
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A study by David Alkon showed that
after unconscious Classical
Conditioning|Pavlovian conditioning
there was a proportionally greater
reduction in the volume of the
dendritic arbor, akin to synaptic
elimination when experience
increases the automaticity of an
action
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Holonomic brain theory - The synaptodendritic web
These polarizations act as waves in
the synaptodendritic network, and the
existence of multiple waves at once
gives rise to interference patterns.
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Synaptics
'Synaptics' develops human interface
solutions for many major consumer
electronics companies, such as Acer
(company)|Acer, Apple Inc., Asus, Dell,
Gateway Computers|Gateway, HewlettPackard|HP, HTC, Lenovo, LG, Logitech,
Nokia, Samsung, Sony, Sony Ericsson,
Toshiba and several others. The products
include touchpads and touchscreens for a
variety of devices including notebook PCs,
PC peripherals, mobile phones, digital music
players, and remote controls.
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Synaptics - History
Synaptics was originally founded as a
neural network research company in 1986
by Kevin J. Kinsella, Gary Lynch, Lauren
Yazolino, Federico Faggin (co-inventor of
the microprocessor) and Carver Mead
(VLSI pioneer). The company began to
apply semiconductor hardware design
techniques to a computing technology
known as neural networks.
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Synaptics - History
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The company started shipping commercial
products in 1995, with its flagship
TouchPad interface for notebook PCs. The
TouchPad is a touch-sensitive pad for
notebooks or keyboards that senses the
position of a user’s finger(s) on the surface
to provide screen navigation, cursor
movement, application control, and a
platform for interactive input.
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Synaptics - History
Synaptics went public in 2002 and is
currently listed on the NASDAQ exchange.
The IPO of 5 million common stock shares
at a price of $11.00 per share received a
57% return at the close of Q1 2002.
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Synaptics - Technology
Synaptics products are based on
capacitive sensing technology. Capacitive
touch sensing works by sensing the
electrical properties of the finger(s)
touching the sensor. Whereas the
resistive touchscreen senses direct
pressure between two clear electrical
layers that are separated by a small
space, requiring an amount of force.
Capacitive touch sensing solutions are
Solid-state (electronics)|solid state
making them more robust than resistive
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Synaptics - Products
A touchpad is integrated into the
majority of today's notebook
computers. Synaptics' share for
touchpads in the notebook PC market
is in the 65-70% range.
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Synaptics - Products
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Some of Synaptics' products are
listed below:
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Synaptics - Products
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*ClickPad – The ClickPad allows users to
press down on the TouchPad itself to
perform a left or right click.
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Synaptics - Products
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*ClearPad – The ClearPad was the world's
first clear capacitive touchscreen sensor
for mobile devices. LG Electronics was the
first to offer a mobile phone with this
sensor with the LG Prada (KE850) in
December 2006.
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Synaptics - Products
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*Gesture Suite (SGS) – SGS provides
Synaptics TouchPad users a variety of
gestures for cursor commands,
available for Microsoft
Windows|Windows
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Synaptic plasticity
1
There are several underlying mechanisms
that cooperate to achieve synaptic
plasticity, including changes in the quantity
of neurotransmitters released into a
synapse and changes in how effectively
cells respond to those neurotransmitters.
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Synaptic plasticity
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Synaptic plasticity in both excitatory and
inhibitory synapses has been found to be
dependent upon postsynaptic calcium
release. Since memory|memories are
postulated to be represented by vastly
interconnected networks of synapses in
the brain, synaptic plasticity is one of the
important neurochemical foundations of
learning and memory (see Hebbian
theory).
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Synaptic plasticity - Historical discoveries
They were able to show a burst of
tetanic (100Hz) stimulus on perforant
path fibres led to a dramatic and longlasting augmentation in the postsynaptic response of cells onto which
these fibres synapse in the dendate
gyrus
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
Opening of NMDA channels (which
relates to the level of cellular
depolarization) leads to a rise in postsynaptic Ca2+ concentration and this has
been linked to long-term potentiation, LTP
(as well as to protein kinase activation);
strong depolarization of the post-synaptic
cell completely displaces the magnesium
ions that block NMDA ion channels and
allows calcium ions to enter a cell –
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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This in turn increases post-synaptic excitation by a
given pre-synaptic stimulus
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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The second mechanism depends on a
second messenger cascade regulating
Transcription (genetics)|gene
transcription and changes in the levels
of key proteins at synapses such as
CaMKII and PKAII
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
Individual dendritic spines are capable of
forming unique responses to presynaptic cells.
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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This second mechanism can be triggered
by protein phosphorylation but takes
longer and lasts longer, providing the
mechanism for long-lasting memory
storage. The duration of the LTP can be
regulated by breakdown of these second
messengers. Phosphodiesterase, for
example, breaks down the secondary
messenger Cyclic adenosine
monophosphate|cAMP, which has been
implicated in increased AMPA receptor
synthesis in the post-synaptic neuron .
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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By changing the F-actin cytoskeletal
structure of dendritic spines, spines
are lengthened and the chance that
they make synaptic contacts with the
axonal terminals of the presynaptic
cell is increased
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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The number of ion channels on the post-synaptic
membrane affects the strength of the synapse.
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
Research suggests that the density of
receptors on post-synaptic membranes
changes, affecting the neuron’s excitability
in response to stimuli. In a dynamic
process that is maintained in equilibrium,
NMDA receptor|N-methyl D-aspartate
receptor (NMDA receptor) and AMPA
receptors are added to the membrane by
exocytosis and removed by endocytosis.
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
These processes, and by extension
the number of receptors on the
membrane, can be altered by synaptic
activity. Experiments have shown that
AMPA receptors are delivered to the
synapse through vesicular membrane
fusion with the postsynaptic membrane
via the protein kinase CaMKII, which is
activated by the influx of calcium
through NMDA receptors. CaMKII also
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
When there is high-frequency NMDA
receptor activation, there is an increase in
the expression of a protein PSD-95 that
increases synaptic capacity for AMPA
receptors. This is what leads to a longterm increase in AMPA receptors and thus
synaptic strength and plasticity.
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
If the strength of a synapse is only
reinforced by stimulation or
weakened by its lack, a positive
feedback loop will develop, causing
some cells never to fire and some to
fire too much. But two regulatory
forms of plasticity, called scaling and
metaplasticity, also exist to provide
negative feedback. Synaptic scaling
is a primary mechanism by which a
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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Synaptic scaling is a primary mechanism by which a
neuron to be selective to its varying inputs.
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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The neuronal circuitry affected by LTP/LTD
and modified by scaling and metaplasticity
leads to reverberatory neural circuit
development and regulation in a Hebbian
manner which is manifested as memory,
whereas the changes in neural circuitry,
which begin at the level of the synapse,
are an integral part in the ability of an
organism to learn.
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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There is also a specificity element of
biochemical interactions to create
synaptic plasticity, namely the
importance of location. Processes
occur at microdomains – such as
exocytosis of AMPA receptors is
spatially regulated by the t-SNARE
Stx4.
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
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Specificity is also an important aspect of
CAMKII signaling involving nanodomain
calcium.
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Synaptic plasticity - Biochemical mechanisms
The spatial gradient of PKA between
dendritic spines and shafts is also
important for the strength and regulation
of synaptic plasticity. It is important to
remember that the biochemical
mechanisms altering synaptic plasticity
occur at the level of individual synapses
of a neuron. Since the biochemical
mechanisms are confined to these
microdomains, the resulting synaptic
plasticity affects only the specific
synapse at which it took place.
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Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms
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A bidirectional model, describing both
LTP and LTD, of synaptic plasticity has
proved necessary for a number of
different learning mechanisms in
computational neuroscience, neural
networks, and biophysics. Three major
hypotheses for the molecular nature of
this plasticity have been well-studied,
and none are required to be the
exclusive mechanism:
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Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms
# Change in the
probability of
glutamate release.
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Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms
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# Phosphorylation and de-phosphorylation
inducing a change in AMPA receptor
conductance.
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Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms
Of these, the first two hypotheses have
been recently mathematically examined to
have identical calcium-dependent
dynamics which provides strong
theoretical evidence for a calcium-based
model of plasticity, which in a linear model
where the total number of receptors are
conserved looks like
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Synaptic plasticity - Theoretical mechanisms
:\frac=\frac]_i)2+2+\rm fp is also a
function of the concentration of calcium
that depends linearly on the number of
receptors on the membrane of the
neuron at some fixed point. Both \Omega
and \tau are found experimentally and
agree on results from both hypotheses.
The model makes important
simplifications that make it unsuited for
actual experimental predictions, but
provides a significant basis for the
hypothesis of a calcium-based synaptic
plasticity dependence.
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Synaptic plasticity - Short-term plasticity
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Short-term synaptic plasticity acts on a
timescale of tens of milliseconds to a few
minutes unlike long-term plasticity, which
lasts from minutes to hours. Short term
plasticity can either strengthen or weaken
a synapse.
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Synaptic plasticity - Synaptic enhancement
Depending on the time scales over
which it acts synaptic enhancement is
classified as neural facilitation,
synaptic augmentation or post-tetanic
potentiation.
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Synaptic plasticity - Synaptic depression
Synaptic fatigue or depression is
usually attributed to the depletion of
the readily releasable vesicles.
Depression can also arise from postsynaptic processes and from feedback
activation of presynaptic receptors.
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Synaptic plasticity - Synaptic depression
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Heterosynaptic depression is thought to be
linked to the release of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) from astrocytes.
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Synaptic plasticity - Long-term plasticity
Long-term depression and long-term
potentiation are two forms of long-term
plasticity, lasting minutes or more, that
occur at excitatory synapses. NMDAdependent LTD and LTP have been
extensively researched, and are found to
require the binding of glutamate, and
glycine or D-serine for activation of NMDA
receptors.
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Synaptic plasticity - Long-term depression
These alternative conditions capable of
causing LTD differ from the Hebb rule, and
instead depend on synaptic activity
modifications
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Synaptic plasticity - Long-term depression
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A LTD was evidenced in 2011 for the
electrical synapses (modification of
Gap Junctions efficacy through their
activity).J. S. Haas, B. Zavala, C. E.
Landisman, Activity-dependent longterm depression of electrical
synapses Science 334, 389–393 (2011).
[Abstract] [Full Text]
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Synaptic plasticity - Long-term potentiation
LTP involves interactions between
postsynaptic neurons and the specific
presynaptic inputs that form a
synaptic association, and is specific to
the stimulated pathway of synaptic
transmission
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Synaptic plasticity - Long-term potentiation
LTP is also a model for studying the
synaptic basis of Hebbian plasticity.
Induction conditions resemble those
described for the initiation of long-term
depression (LTD), but a stronger
depolarization and a greater increase of
calcium are necessary to achieve LTP.
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Synaptic plasticity - Synaptic strength
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The modification of synaptic strength is
referred to as functional plasticity.
Changes in synaptic strength involve
distinct mechanisms of particular types of
glial cells, the most researched type being
astrocytes.
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
Another way to look at inhibitory
postsynaptic potentials is that they are
also a chloride conductance change in
the neuronal cell because it decreases
the driving force.Microelectrodes can
be used to measure postsynaptic
potentials at either excitatory or
inhibitory synapses.
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
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EPSPs and IPSPs compete with each
other at numerous synapses of a
neuron; this determines whether or
not the action potential at the
presynaptic terminal will regenerate
at the postsynaptic membrane
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Types
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This system IPSPs can be temporally
summed with subthreshold or
suprathreshold EPSPs to reduce the
amplitude of the resultant postsynaptic
potential. Equivalent EPSPs (positive)
and IPSPs (negative) can cancel each
other out when summed. The balance
between EPSPs and IPSPs is very
important in the integration of electrical
information produced by inhibitory and
excitatory synapses.
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Factors
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The size of the neuron can also affect
the inhibitory postsynaptic potential.
Simple temporal summation of
postsynaptic potentials occurs in
smaller neurons, whereas in larger
neurons larger numbers of synapses
and ionotropic receptors as well as a
longer distance from the synapse to
the soma enables the prolongation of
interactions between neurons.
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Inhibitory Molecules
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If the electrochemical potential of the
ion is more negative than that of the
action potential threshold then the
resultant conductance change that
occurs due to the binding of GABA to
its receptors keeps the postsynaptic
potential more negative than the
threshold and decreases the
probability of the postsynaptic neuron
completing an action potential
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Ionotropic receptors
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These channels influence the amplitude and
time-course of postsynaptic potentials as a
whole
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Metabotropic receptors
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They can also block calcium ion channels in order
to hyperpolarize postsynaptic cells.
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance
There are many applications of
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials to
the real world. Drugs that affect the
actions of the neurotransmitter can
treat neurological and psychological
disorders through different
combinations of types of receptors, Gproteins, and ion channels in
postsynaptic neurons.
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance
For example, studies researching
opioid receptor-mediated receptor
desensitizing and trafficking in the
locus cereleus of the brain are being
performed
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance
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Morphine and opioids relate to inhibitory
postsynaptic potentials because they
induce disinhibition in dopamine neurons.
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance
Songbirds use GABAergic calyceal
synaptic terminals and a calcyx-like
synapse such that each cell in the
dorsalateral thalamic nucleus receives at
most two axon terminals from the basal
ganglia to create large postsynaptic
currents
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Significance
When the ipsilateral striatum of an
adult toad was electrically stimulated,
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
were induced in binocular tegmental
neurons, which affects the visual
system of the toad.
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies
Dendritic inhibitory postsynaptic
potentials can be severely reduced by
DSIs through direct depolarization
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies
The hyperpolarization
(biology)|hyperpolarization activated
nonselective cation conductance
decreases EPSP summation and duration
and they also change inhibitory inputs into
postsynaptic excitation
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies
Theta rhythms are found in the
hippocampus and GABAergic synaptic
inhibition helps to modulate them
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies
The results showed that both
compound and unitary inhibitory
postsynaptic potentials are amplified
by dendritic calcium ion channels
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies
1
Descending modulatory inputs are
necessary for the developmental shift
from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - Studies
The changing levels of synaptically
released glutamate creates an excitation
through the activation of ionotropic
receptors, followed by the inhibition of
metabotropic glutamate receptors.
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Reconsolidation - Synaptic consolidation
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LTP, one of the best understood forms of
synaptic plasticity, is thought to be a
possible underlying process in synaptic
consolidation.
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Synaptic transmission
Synaptic transmission relies on: the
availability of the neurotransmitter; the
release of the neuron by exocytosis; the
binding of the postsynaptic receptor by the
neurotransmitter; the functional response
of the postsynaptic cell; and the
subsequent removal or deactivation of the
neurotransmitter
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Synaptic transmission
The binding of neurotransmitters to
receptors in the postsynaptic neuron can
trigger either short term changes, like
changes in the membrane potential called
postsynaptic potentials, or longer term
changes by the activation of Signal
transduction|signaling cascades
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Synaptic transmission
1
Neurons form elaborate networks through which
nerve impulses (action potentials) travel
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Synaptic transmission - Stages in neurotransmission at the synapse
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# Synthesis of the neurotransmitter.
This can take place in the cell body, in
the axon, or in the axon terminal.
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Synaptic transmission - Stages in neurotransmission at the synapse
1
# Storage of the neurotransmitter in storage
granules or vesicles in the axon terminal.
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Synaptic transmission - Stages in neurotransmission at the synapse
# Calcium enters the axon terminal
during an action potential, causing
exocytosis|release of the
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
1
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Synaptic transmission - Stages in neurotransmission at the synapse
1
# Deactivation of the neurotransmitter.
The neurotransmitter is either
destroyed enzymatically, or taken back
into the terminal from which it came,
where it can be reused, or degraded
and removed. (reference for all five
stages)
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Synaptic transmission - Summation
1
Each neuron connects with numerous other
neurons, receiving numerous impulses from
them.
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Synaptic transmission - Summation
'Summation' is the adding together of
these impulses at the axon hillock. If the
neuron only gets excitatory impulses, it will
also generate an action potential. If
instead the neuron gets as many inhibitory
as excitatory impulses, the inhibition
cancels out the excitation and the nerve
impulse will stop
there.[http://core.ecu.edu/psyc/grahamr/D
W_3311Site/ReadingGuidesF/RG_Index.h
tml]
1
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Synaptic transmission - Summation
1
'Spatial summation' means that the
effects of impulses received at
different places on the neuron add up,
so that the neuron may fire when such
impulses are received
simultaneously, even if each impulse
on its own would not be sufficient to
cause firing.
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Synaptic transmission - Summation
'Temporal summation' means that the
effects of impulses received at the same
place can add up if the impulses are
received in close temporal succession.
Thus the neuron may fire when multiple
impulses are received, even if each
impulse on its own would not be sufficient
to cause
firing.[http://web.lemoyne.edu/~hevern/psy
340/graphics/summation.jpg]
1
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Synaptic transmission - Convergence and divergence
Neurotransmission implies both a
convergence and a divergence of
information. First one neuron is
influenced by many others, resulting
in a convergence of input.
1
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Synaptic transmission - Convergence and divergence
1
When the neuron fires, the signal is sent to
many other neurons, resulting in a
divergence of output. Many other neurons
are influenced by this
neuron.[http://www.cameron.edu/~gabrielr/
PHYCH4/sld055.htm]
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Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission
1
'Cotransmission' is the release of several types of
neurotransmitters from a single nerve terminal.
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Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission
At the nerve terminal,
neurotransmitters are present within
35–50 nm membrane-encased vesicles
called synaptic vesicles. To release
neurotransmitters, the synaptic
vesicles transiently dock and fuse at
the base of specialized 10–15 nm cupshaped lipoprotein structures at the
presynaptic membrane called
porosomes. The neuronal porosome
1
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Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission
1
Recent studies in a myriad of systems
have shown that most, if not all,
neurons release several different
chemical messengers.
Cotransmission allows for more
complex effects at Neurotransmitter
receptor|postsynaptic receptors, and
thus allows for more complex
communication to occur between
neurons.
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Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission
In modern neuroscience, neurons are
often classified by their cotransmitter. For
example, striatal GABAergic neurons
utilize opioid peptides or substance P as
their primary cotransmitter.
1
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Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission
1
Some neurons can release at least two
neurotransmitters at the same time,
the other being a
Neurotransmission#Cotransmission|
cotransmitter, in order to provide the
stabilizing negative feedback
required for meaningful encoding, in
the absence of inhibitory
interneurons. Examples include:
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Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission
1
* Dopamine–glutamate co-release.
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Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission
1
* Acetylcholine–glutamate corelease.
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Synaptic transmission - Cotransmission
1
* Glutamate–dynorphin corelease (in hippocampus).
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential
1
The flow of ions that causes an EPSP is an
'excitatory postsynaptic current' (EPSC).
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential
1
EPSPs, like IPSPs, are graded (i.e. they
have an additive effect). When multiple
EPSPs occur on a single patch of
postsynaptic membrane, their combined
effect is the sum of the individual EPSPs.
Larger EPSPs result in greater membrane
depolarization and thus increase the
likelihood that the postsynaptic cell
reaches the threshold for firing an action
potential.
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Overview
At excitatory synapses, the ion
channel typically allows sodium into
the cell, generating an excitatory
postsynaptic current
1
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Excitatory molecules
The neurotransmitter most often
associated with EPSPs is the amino
acid glutamate, and is the main
excitatory neurotransmitter in the
central nervous system of vertebrates
1
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Excitatory molecules
1
At the same time, GABA is the most common
neurotransmitter associated with IPSPs in the
brain.
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Excitatory molecules
However, classifying
neurotransmitters as such is
technically incorrect, as there are
several other synaptic factors that
help determine a neurotransmitter's
excitatory or inhibitory effects.
1
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Miniature EPSPs and quantal analysis
The release of synaptic
vesicle|neurotransmitter vesicles from the
presynaptic cell is probabilistic. In fact,
even without stimulation of the presynaptic
cell, a single vesicle will occasionally be
released into the synapse, generating
miniature EPSPs
1
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Miniature EPSPs and quantal analysis
1
Quantal size can then be defined as the
synaptic response to the release of
neurotransmitter from a single vesicle,
while quantal content is the number of
effective vesicles released in response to
a nerve impulse
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Field EPSPs
Because these neurons are in the
same orientation, the extracellular
signals from synaptic excitation don't
cancel out, but rather add up to give a
signal that can easily be recorded with
a field electrode
1
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Encoding (memory) - Synaptic plasticity
1
In the short term, synaptic changes may
include the strengthening or weakening of
a connection by modifying the preexisting
proteins leading to a modification in
synapse connection strength
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Sleep and Memory - Synaptic plasticity
1
Synaptic plasticity can be described as the changing
in strength between two related neurons
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of
NAPTOSA
The Union is a voluntary association of
members not for gain acting in the
activities of the Union and in order to
adhere to its principles and to promote,
protect and maintain the rights, status and
interests of members in good standing, the
Union shall:
1
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
1
* promote a system of education that
is non-discriminatory with regard to
colour, language, gender, religion,
ethnicity, origin, social class, birth,
political or other convictions,
disabilities, natural or cultural
characteristics;
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
1
* promote a system of education which focuses on
the needs of the individual learner
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
* strive for an equitable system of
education in South Africa which will satisfy
the needs and aspirations of all its people;
1
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
1
* strive for the establishment and the maintenance
of effective compulsory education;
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
* assert the professional
responsibility of educators to guide
pupils and students in their care in the
universal pursuit of knowledge and
skills and in the development of full
creative potential so that they may
become responsible and selfsupporting citizens of a democratic
state;
1
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of
NAPTOSA
1
* ensure that the interests of learners
are in no way prejudiced by any act or
omission on the part of employees,
whilst affirming the fundamental
right of employees to strike;
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
1
* contribute to the development of all
education legislation and all aspects of
education policy and planning;
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
1
* strive to maintain and enhance effective
consultation, advisory, collective
negotiating and bargaining mechanisms
and structures for the organised teaching
profession;
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
1
* support a professional body which is
responsible for the registration of
educators, the promotion of
professional development of
educators and the maintenance of a
code of conduct;
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of
NAPTOSA
1
* co-operate with parents, communities and other
bodies in the quest for excellence in education;
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
1
* assume financial responsibility for a
fund or funds to be applied in the
achievement of the objectives stated
above, and to take any action to raise
or obtain funds;
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of
NAPTOSA
* provide a collective voice in the
pursuance of its aims and objectives
including, but not limited to, continual
evaluation and enhancement of
legislation affecting education and
education sector employees, as
circumstances may require;
1
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National Professional Teachers' Organisation of South Africa - Objectives of NAPTOSA
* do all things necessary for the
furtherance and achievement of any or
all of the above objectives and in
general serve the best interests of the
Union, its members and its provincial
structures.
1
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Normality (behavior) - Neuronal and synaptic normality
1
Hebbian associative learning and memory
maintenance depends on synaptic
normalization mechanisms to prevent
synaptic runaway. Where synaptic
runaway describes overcrowding of
dendrite|dendritic associations, which
reduce sensory or behavioural acuteness
proportional to the level of synaptic
runaway. Synaptic/neuronal normalization
refers to synaptic competition, where the
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Normality (behavior) - Neuronal and synaptic normality
1
Neuronal and synaptic normalization
mechanisms must operate so positive
association feedback loops to not
become rampant while constantly
processing new environmental
information.
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Normality (behavior) - Neuronal and synaptic normality
The re-normalization occurs from
cortical large amplitude brain rhythm,
in the low delta range (0.5–2Hz),
synaptically downscaling the
associations from the wakeful learning
state
1
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Normality (behavior) - Neuronal and synaptic normality
1
Also, organisms tend to have a normal
biological developmental pathway as a
central nervous system ages and/or
learns. Deviations for a species' normal
development frequently will result in
behaviour dysfunction, or death, of that
organism.
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Fear processing in the brain - Hebbian synaptic plasticity
1
It is also clear that synaptic plasticity at
conditioned stimulus input pathways to
the lateral amygdala does occur with
fear conditioning.
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Congenital myasthenic syndrome - Postsynaptic CMS
1
In the neuromuscular junction there is a
vital pathway that maintains synaptic
structure and results in the aggregation
and localization of AChR on the
postsynaptic folds
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Congenital myasthenic syndrome - Postsynaptic CMS
1
Out of all mutations associated with CMS,
more than half are mutations in one of the
four genes encoding the adult
acetylcholine receptor (AChR) subunits
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Congenital myasthenic syndrome - Postsynaptic CMS
1
Another common underlying mechanism
of CMS is the mutation of the rapsyn
protein, coded by the RAPSN gene
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Congenital myasthenic syndrome - Postsynaptic CMS
1
Studies have shown that most patients
with CMS that have rapsyn mutations
carry the common mutation N88K on at
least one allele
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
1
Published in 2002, Ledoux's Synaptic Self
attempts to synthesize his research in
neuroscience and on the brain in order to
begin tackling the big
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
1
Ledoux gives a brief synopsis of the
disciplines that have made significant
contributions to theories and
conceptions of the self, claiming his
synaptic theory of the self is not
proposed as an alternative to these
views...rather, an attempt to portray the
way the psychological, social, moral,
aesthetic, or spiritual is realized.Ibid 3
From here, Ledoux goes on to
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
It includes what we would like to be as
well as what we hope we never become...I
believe, in short, that an answer to the
question of how our brains make us who
we are can be found in synaptic processes
that allow cooperative interactions to take
place between the various brain systems
that are involved in particular states and
experiences, and for these interactions to
be linked over time.Ibid 31-32
1
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
Essentially, Ledoux understands the
self to be a constructed assembly of
synaptic connections that begins with
genetic and environmental influences
and then is refined through
experiences to distinguish one self
from another. He believes that synaptic
plasticity occur[s] in multiple neural
systems [and] is coordinated in the
process of assembling, and
1
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
1
#Different Systems Experience the Same
World - Systems in the brain experience
the same event, but store and interpret the
information in different ways creating a
parallel encoding/plasticity
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
#Parallel Plasticity is also
Coordinated by Modulatory Systems Significant events trigger modulatory
systems to release chemicals that in
turn excite active cells across the
brain also helping coordinate parallel
plasticity
1
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
#Convergence Zones Integrate
Parallel Plasticity - Certain regions
act as convergence zones that
integrate processing in independent
systems and then influence the
activity of the input regions
1
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
1
#Downwardly Mobile Thoughts Coordinate
Parallel Plasticity - To carry out an
intention, it requires downward mobility
which influences plasticity in a top-bottom
manner
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
1
#Emotional States Monopolize Brain
Resources - Activation of emotional
systems coordinate activation of
several corresponding areas.
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
1
#Implicit and Explicit Aspects of the
Self Overlap, but not Completely - We
try and control who we are through
explicit systems but due to imperfect
cognitive access to implicit emotional
systems, that is not always possible.
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Joseph E. LeDoux - Synaptic Self
1
That the self is synaptic can be a curse
- it doesn't take much to break it apart.
But it is also a blessing, as there are
always new connections waiting to be
made. You are your synapses. They
are who you are.Ibid 324
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T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M.
1
In True Spies, it is revealed that Snaptrap
actually doesn't hate Larry, but only
mistreated him because he believes he
has much potential to be malignant.
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T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M.
1
in Iron Mutt, he thinks that Snaptrap has
planned to trap the principal of the local
high school and impersonate her due to
the large mousetrap and the dress he's
wearing which Snaptrap quickly covers up
by saying that was his plan)
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T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M.
1
* 'Francisco' (voiced by Daran Norris
in a Chicago accent) - An alligator who
is one of Snaptrap's main henchmen.
He is also the only one of Snaptrap's
henchman who seems to take villainy
seriously. In Dog Dish, he kept trying
to convince Snaptrap to use the
invisibility helmet for more evil deeds
than sneaking into the movies. In True
Spies, it is revealed that Francisco's
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T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M.
1
* 'Bad Dog' (voiced by Jeff Bennett in
the first appearance, Daran Norris in
later appearances) - A pit bull and one
of Snaptrap's henchmen. He is often
seen with a black torn sleeveless shirt
with a skull on it (similar to Punisher's
T-shirt). Bad Dog is often paired up
with Leather Teddy.
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T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M.
1
* 'Leather Teddy' (voiced by Eric Bauza) A leather clad Tibetan blue bear|blue bear
and one of Snaptrap's henchmen that
wears an eyepatch (though the first
episode shows that he still has an eye
under the eyepatch). He wields bear traps
on chains for weapons. Leather Teddy's
outfit gives him the appearance of a
Outlaw motorcycle club|biker. He is often
paired up with Bad Dog.
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T.U.F.F. Puppy - Snaptrap's Henchmen or D.O.O.M.
1
* 'Skunk' (voiced by Jeff Bennett) - A
skunk who is one of Snaptrap's
henchmen. So far, he has only
appeared in Cruisin' with a Bruisin.
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Microglia - Synaptic stripping
In a phenomenon first noticed in
spinal lesions by Blinzinger and
Kreutzberg in 1968, postinflammation microglia remove the
branches from nerves near damaged
tissue. This helps promote regrowth
and remapping of damaged neural
circuitry.
1
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Pinealocyte - Synaptic ribbons
At night, synaptic ribbons of rats
appear larger and slightly curved, but
during the day, they appear smaller and
rod-like.
1
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Postsynaptic density
1
Hundreds of proteins have been identified
in the postsynaptic density including
glutamate receptors, scaffold proteins, and
many signaling molecules.
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Postsynaptic density - Function
The PSD has been proposed to
concentrate and organize
neurotransmitter receptors in the
synaptic cleft
1
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Postsynaptic density - Structure
1
The structure and composition of the PSD
have been the focus of numerous molecular
studies of synaptic plasticity, a cellular model
of learning and memory. PSDs are sized on
the order of 250 to 500 nanometres in
diameter and 25 to 50 nanometres in
thickness, depending on the activity state of
the synapse. During synaptic plasticity, the
total size of the PSD is increasing along with
an increase in synaptic size and strength
after inducing long-term potentiation at single
synapses.
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Postsynaptic density - Composition
Current estimates are greater than
several hundred proteins are found at
PSDs among brain regions and during
different states of development and
synaptic activity
1
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Use of DNA in forensic entomology - Order Siphonaptera
Listed here are fleas commonly
encountered by humans that could
potentially be used for DNA identification.
1
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Use of DNA in forensic entomology - Order Siphonaptera
* Sticktight and chigoe
flea, Family
Hectopsyllidae (formerly
Tungidae)
1
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Use of DNA in forensic entomology - Order Siphonaptera
* Northern rat flea
(Nosopsyllus fasciatus)
1
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Tripiṭaka - Prajñaptivāda
1
The Prajñaptivāda|Prajñaptivādins held
that the Buddha's teachings in the various
piṭakas were nominal (Skt
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Two truths doctrine - Prajnāptivāda
1
The Prajnaptivada|Prajnāptivāda school
took up the distinction between the
conventional and ultimate (paramārtha/),
and extended the concept to
Dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist
phenomenology|metaphysicalphenomenological constituents (dharmas),
distinguishing those that are real (tattva)
from those that are purely conceptual, i.e.,
ultimately nonexistent (prajnāpti).
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Palmitoylation - Palmitoylation in synaptic plasticity
1
This provides a role for palmitoylation in
regulating neurotransmitter
release.Molecular Mechanisms of
Synaptogenesis
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Palmitoylation - Palmitoylation in synaptic plasticity
1
Palmitoylation of delta catenin seems
to coordinate activity-dependent
changes in synaptic adhesion
molecules, synapse structure, and
receptor localizations that are
involved in memory formation.
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Federico Faggin - Synaptics
1
As cofounder, president and CEO of
Synaptics, F. Faggin contributed also
to the creation of the Synaptics I1000,
the world’s first single-chip optical
character recognizer (1991), and the
Synaptics Touchpad (1994) and
Touchscreen (1998). F. Faggin is a coinventor of 10 patents assigned to
Synaptics.
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Synaptic cleft
'Chemical synapses' are specialized
junctions through which neurons signal
to each other and to non-neuronal cells
such as those in neuromuscular
junction|muscles or glands. Chemical
synapses allow neurons to form circuits
within the central nervous system. They
are crucial to the biological
computations that underlie perception
and thought. They allow the nervous
system to connect to and control other
systems of the body.
1
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Synaptic cleft
Finally, the neurotransmitters must be
cleared from the synapse through one of
several potential mechanisms including
enzymatic degradation or re-uptake by
Neurotransmitter transporter|specific
transporters either on the presynaptic cell
or possibly by neuroglia to terminate the
action of the transmitter.
1
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Synaptic cleft
1
The adult human brain is estimated to
contain from 1014 to 5 × 1014 (100–500
trillion) synapses. Every cubic
millimeter of cerebral cortex contains
roughly a billion (Long and short
scales|short scale, i.e. 109) of them.
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Synaptic cleft
The word synapse comes from
synaptein, which Sir Charles Scott
Sherrington and colleagues coined
from the Greek syn- (together) and
haptein (to clasp). Chemical synapses
are not the only type of biological
synapse: electrical synapse|electrical
and immunological synapses also
exist. Without a qualifier, however,
synapse commonly means chemical
1
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
1
Synapses are functional connections between
neurons, or between neurons and other types of
cells.
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
1
A typical neuron gives rise to several
thousand synapses, although there are
some types that make far fewer.
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
1
but there are also other types of connections,
including axon-to-cell-body, axon-to-axon,
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
1
Synapses are generally too small to be
recognizable using a light microscope
except as points where the membranes
of two cells appear to touch, but their
cellular elements can be visualized
clearly using an electron microscope.
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
1
Synaptic vesicles are docked at the presynaptic
plasma membrane at regions called active
zones.
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
1
Immediately opposite is a region of the
postsynaptic cell containing
neurotransmitter receptor
(biochemistry)|receptors; for synapses
between two neurons the postsynaptic
region may be found on the dendrites
or cell body. Immediately behind the
postsynaptic membrane is an elaborate
complex of interlinked proteins called
the postsynaptic density (PSD).
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
Proteins in the PSD are involved in
anchoring and trafficking
neurotransmitter receptors and
modulating the activity of these
receptors. The receptors and PSDs are
often found in specialized protrusions
from the main dendritic shaft called
dendritic spines.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
Synapses may be described as
symmetric or asymmetric. When
examined under an electron
microscope, asymmetric synapses
are characterized by rounded vesicles
in the presynaptic cell, and a
prominent postsynaptic density.
Asymmetric synapses are typically
excitatory. Symmetric synapses in
contrast have flattened or elongated
vesicles, and do not contain a
prominent postsynaptic density.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Structure
1
The 'synaptic cleft' is an gap between
the pre- and postsynaptic cells that is
about 20nm wide. The small volume of
the cleft allows neurotransmitter
concentration to be raised and
lowered rapidly.
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
1
Here is a summary of the sequence of
events that take place in synaptic
transmission from a presynaptic
neuron to a postsynaptic cell. Each
step is explained in more detail below.
Note that with the exception of the
final step, the entire process may run
only a few hundred microseconds, in
the fastest synapses.
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
#The process begins with a wave of
electrochemical excitation called an action
potential traveling along the membrane of
the presynaptic cell, until it reaches the
synapse.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
#The electrical depolarization of the
membrane at the synapse causes
channels to open that are permeable to
calcium ions.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
#Calcium ions flow through the
presynaptic membrane, rapidly
increasing the calcium concentration
in the interior.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
1
#The high calcium concentration
activates a set of calcium-sensitive
proteins attached to Synaptic
vesicle|vesicles that contain a
neurotransmitter chemical.
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
1
#These proteins change shape, causing
the membranes of some docked vesicles
to fuse with the membrane of the
presynaptic cell, thereby opening the
vesicles and dumping their
neurotransmitter contents into the synaptic
cleft, the narrow space between the
membranes of the pre- and postsynaptic
cells.
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
1
#The neurotransmitter diffuses within the
cleft. Some of it escapes, but some of it
binds to chemical receptor molecules
located on the membrane of the
postsynaptic cell.
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
#The binding of neurotransmitter
causes the receptor molecule to be
activated in some way. Several types
of activation are possible, as
described in more detail below. In
any case, this is the key step by which
the synaptic process affects the
behavior of the postsynaptic cell.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
#Due to Johnson–Nyquist
noise|thermal vibration,
neurotransmitter molecules
eventually break loose from the
receptors and drift away.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Overview
1
#The neurotransmitter is either reabsorbed
by the presynaptic cell, and then
repackaged for future release, or else it is
broken down metabolically.
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Synaptic cleft - Neurotransmitter release
Within the presynaptic nerve
terminal, vesicle (biology)|vesicles
containing neurotransmitter are
localized near the synaptic membrane
1
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Synaptic cleft - Neurotransmitter release
As a whole, the protein complex or
structure that mediates the docking and
fusion of presynaptic vesicles is called the
active zone.Craig C
1
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Synaptic cleft - Receptor binding
1
The second way a receptor can affect
membrane potential is by modulating the
production of second messenger
system|chemical messengers inside the
postsynaptic neuron
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Synaptic cleft - Termination
After a neurotransmitter molecule
binds to a receptor molecule, it must
be removed to allow for the
postsynaptic membrane to continue to
relay subsequent EPSPs and/or IPSPs.
This removal can happen through one
or more processes:
1
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Synaptic cleft - Termination
1
*The neurotransmitter may diffuse away
due to thermally-induced oscillations of
both it and the receptor, making it
available to be broken down metabolically
outside the neuron or to be
reabsorbed.Sherwood L.,stikawy (2007).
Human Physiology 6e: From Cells to
Systems
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Synaptic cleft - Termination
1
*Enzymes within the subsynaptic membrane
may inactivate/metabolize the
neurotransmitter.
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Synaptic cleft - Termination
1
*Reuptake pumps may actively pump
the neurotransmitter back into the
presynaptic axon terminal for
reprocessing and re-release following
a later action potential.
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Synaptic cleft - Synaptic strength
The strength of a synapse has been
defined by Sir Bernard Katz as the product
of (presynaptic) release probability pr,
quantal size q (the postsynaptic response
to the release of a single neurotransmitter
vesicle, a 'quantum'), and n, the number of
release sites. Unitary connection usually
refers to an unknown number of individual
synapses connecting a presynaptic neuron
to a postsynaptic neuron.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Receptor desensitization
1
Desensitization of the postsynaptic receptors
is a decrease in response to the same
neurotransmitter stimulus. It means that the
strength of a synapse may in effect diminish
as a train of action potentials arrive in rapid
succession – a phenomenon that gives rise
to the so-called frequency dependence of
synapses. The nervous system exploits this
property for computational purposes, and can
tune its synapses through such means as
phosphorylation of the proteins involved.
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Synaptic cleft - Synaptic plasticity
Synaptic plasticity can be either
homosynaptic (occurring at a single
synapse) or heterosynaptic (occurring
at multiple synapses).
1
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Synaptic cleft - Volume transmission
1
The extrasynaptic activity of a neurotransmitter is
known as volume transmission
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Synaptic cleft - Volume transmission
Recent work indicates that volume
transmission may be the predominant
mode of interaction for some special
types of neurons. In the mammalian
cerebral cortex, a class of neurons called
neurogliaform cells can inhibit other
nearby cortical neurons by releasing the
neurotransmitter GABA into the
extracellular space. Approximately 78%
of neurogliaforms do not form classical
synapses. This may be the first definitive
example of neurons communicating
chemically where synapses are not
present.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Relationship to electrical synapses
As opposed to chemical synapses, the
postsynaptic potential in electrical
synapses is not caused by the opening of
ion channels by chemical transmitters, but
rather by direct electrical coupling between
both neurons
1
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Synaptic cleft - Relationship to electrical synapses
In some cases electrical synapses
can be found within the same terminal
of a chemical synapse, as in Mauthner
cells.
1
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Synaptic cleft - Effects of drugs
1
For example, curare is a poison that stops
acetylcholine from depolarizing the
postsynaptic membrane, causing paralysis
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Synaptic cleft - History
1
During the 1950s, Bernard Katz and
Paul Fatt observed spontaneous
miniature synaptic currents at the
frog neuromuscular junction
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Excitatory post-synaptic potentials - Characteristics and Filtering of EPSPs
1
Amplitude and timeto-peak are two
important
characteristics of an
EPSP
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Synaptic vesicle
1
PMID 19202060 In the human brain region
V1 synaptic vesicles have an average
diameter of 39.5 nanometers with a
standard deviation of 5.1 nanometers.
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Synaptic vesicle - History
1
With the advent of modern Electron
microscope|electron microscopic
techniques in the early 1950s, nerve
endings were found to contain a large
number of electron-lucent vesicles.
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Synaptic vesicle - History
The term synaptic vesicle was first
introduced by De Robertis and Bennett in
1954. This was shortly after transmitter
release at the frog neuromuscular junction
was found to induce postsynaptic
miniature end-plate potentials that were
ascribed to the release of discrete
packages of neurotransmitter (quanta)
from the presynaptic nerve terminal.
1
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Synaptic vesicle - History
1
It was thus reasonable to hypothesize
that the transmitter substance
(acetylcholine) was contained in such
vesicles, which by a secretory
mechanism would release their
contents into the chemical
synapse|synaptic cleft (vesicle
hypothesis).
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Synaptic vesicle - History
1
The isolation of highly purified fractions of
cholinergic synaptic vesicles from the ray
Torpedo (genus)|Torpedo electric organ
was an important step forward in the study
of vesicle biochemistry and function.
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Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition
1
Synaptic vesicles are relatively simple
because only a limited number of
proteins fit into a sphere of 40nm
diameter. Purified vesicles have a
protein:phospholipid ratio of 1:3 with
a lipid composition of 40%
phosphatidylcholine, 32%
phosphatidylethanolamine, 12%
phosphatidylserine, 5%
phosphatidylinositol, and 10%
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Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition
1
Synaptic vesicles contain two classes
of obligatory components: transport
proteins involved in neurotransmitter
uptake, and trafficking proteins that
participate in synaptic vesicle
exocytosis, endocytosis, and
recycling.
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Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition
Vesicular transport protein|Vesicular
transporters move neurotransmitters from
the cells' cytoplasm into the synaptic
vesicles
1
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Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition
1
*Trafficking proteins are more complex. They
include intrinsic membrane proteins,
peripherally bound proteins, and proteins
such as SNARE (protein)|SNAREs. These
proteins do not share a characteristic that
would make them identifiable as synaptic
vesicle proteins, and little is known about how
these proteins are specifically deposited into
synaptic vesicles. Many but not all of the
known synaptic vesicle proteins interact with
non-vesicular proteins and are linked to
specific functions.
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Synaptic vesicle - Formation and composition
1
The stoichiometry for the movement
of different neurotransmitters into a
vesicle is given in the following table.
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Synaptic vesicle - Effects of neurotoxins
1
Some neurotoxins, such as batrachotoxin,
are known to destroy synaptic vesicles.
The tetanus toxin damages vesicleassociated membrane proteins (VAMP), a
type of v-SNARE, while botulinum toxins
damage t-SNARES and v-SNARES and
thus inhibit synaptic transmission.Kandel
et al., 2000 A Spider bite|spider toxin
called alpha-Latrotoxin binds to
neurexins, damaging vesicles and
causing massive release of
neurotransmitters.
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Synaptic vesicle - Vesicle pools
1
Vesicles in the nerve terminal are
grouped into three pools: the readily
releasable pool, the recycling pool,
and the reserve pool
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Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle
Synaptic vesicle components are
initially trafficked to the synapse
using members of the kinesin motor
family. In Caenorhabditis elegans|C.
elegans the major motor for synaptic
vesicles is UNC-104. There is also
evidence that other proteins such as
UNC-16/Sunday Driver regulate the
use of motors for transport of synaptic
vesicles.
1
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Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle
Once at the synapse, synaptic vesicles
are loaded with a neurotransmitter.
Loading of transmitter is an active
process requiring a neurotransmitter
transporter and a proton pump ATPase
that provides an electrochemical gradient.
These transporters are selective for
different classes of transmitters.
Characterization of unc-17 and unc-47,
which encode the vesicular acetylcholine
transporter and vesicular GABA
transporter have been described to date.
1
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Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle
1
Many proteins on synaptic vesicles and at
release sites have been identified,
however none of the identified protein
interactions between the vesicle proteins
and release site proteins can account for
the docking phase of the cycle
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Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle
1
Priming prepares the synaptic vesicle so
that they are able to fuse rapidly in
response to a calcium influx
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Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle
1
Similarly, mutants in Drosophila and
knockouts in mice indicate that these
SNARES play a critical role in synaptic
exocytosis.
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Synaptic vesicle - The synaptic vesicle cycle
This accounts for the re-uptake of
synaptic vesicles in the full contact
fusion model. However, other studies
have been compiling evidence
suggesting that this type of fusion and
endocytosis is not always the case.
1
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Synaptic vesicle - Vesicle recycling
Two leading mechanisms of action are
thought to be responsible for synaptic vesicle
recycling: full collapse fusion and the kissand-run method. Both mechanisms begin
with the formation of the synaptic pore that
releases transmitter to the extracellular
space. After release of the neurotransmitter,
the pore can either dilate fully so that the
vesicle collapses completely into the synaptic
membrane, or it can close rapidly and pinch
off the membrane to generate kiss-and-run
fusion.
1
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Synaptic vesicle - Full collapse fusion
1
Studies suggest that the entire cycle of
exocytosis, retrieval, and reformation
of the synaptic vesicles requires less
than 1 minute.
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Synaptic vesicle - Full collapse fusion
With the help of synaptobrevin on the
synaptic vesicle, the t-SNARE complex on
the membrane, made up of syntaxin and
SNAP-25, can dock, prime, and fuse the
synaptic vesicle into the membrane.
1
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Synaptic vesicle - Full collapse fusion
1
In turn, these neurotoxins prevent synaptic vesicles
from completing full collapse fusion
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Synaptic vesicle - Kiss-and-run
1
This reinforces the idea of a kiss-andrun fashion, the synaptic vesicle
releases its payload and then
separates from the membrane.
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Synaptic vesicle - Modulation
Cells thus appear to have at least two
mechanisms to follow for membrane
recycling. Under certain conditions, cells
can switch from one mechanism to the
other. Slow, conventional, full collapse
fusion predominates the synaptic
membrane when Ca2+ levels are low, and
the fast kiss-and-run mechanism is
followed when Ca2+ levels are high.
1
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Synaptic vesicle - Modulation
Ales et al. showed that raised
concentrations of extracellular
calcium ions shift the preferred mode
of recycling and synaptic vesicle
release to the kiss-and-run
mechanism in a calciumconcentration-dependent manner. Its
been proposed that during secretion of
neurotransmitters at synapses, the
mode of exocytosis is modulated by
1
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Synaptic vesicle - Modulation
Kiss-and-run also seems to be the
dominate mechanism at the
beginning of stimulus trains,
reflecting that this mechanism has a
high release probability. Its incidence
is also increased by rapid firing and
stimulation, suggesting that this
response is quicker in kinetics.
1
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Muscarinic - Presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction
1
It's now known they also appear on the
pre-synaptic membrane of somatic
neurons in the neuro-muscular
junction, where they are involved in the
regulation of acetylcholine release.
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SK channel - Synaptic plasticity and long term potentiation
In addition to being activated by
calcium flow through voltage-gated
calcium channels, SK channels can be
activated by calcium flowing through
NMDA receptors, which occurs after
depolarization of the postsynaptic
membrane
1
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Reflex arc - Monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic
1
When a reflex arc consists of only two
neurons in an animal (one sensory
neuron, and one motor neuron), it is
defined as 'monosynaptic'.
Monosynaptic refers to the presence
of a single chemical synapse. In the
case of peripheral muscle reflexes
(patellar reflex, achilles reflex), brief
stimulation to the muscle spindle
results in contraction of the agonist or
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Reflex arc - Monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic
By contrast, in 'polysynaptic' reflex
pathways, one or more interneurons
connect afferent nerve|afferent (sensory
system|sensory) and efferent
nerve|efferent (motor system|motor)
signals. All but the most simple reflexes
are polysynaptic, allowing processing or
inhibition of polysynaptic reflexes within
the brain.
1
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Parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion - Presynaptic
1
Presynaptic parasympathetic fibers
originate in the Edinger-Westphal
nucleus, the parasympathetic motor
nucleus associated with the
oculomotor nucleus in the brainstem
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Parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion - Postsynaptic
1
Postsynaptic parasympathetic fibers leave
the ciliary ganglion in multiple (six to ten)
'short ciliary nerves'. These nerves enter the
posterior aspect of the eyeball to innervate
the 'sphincter pupillae' and 'ciliaris' muscles.
The sphincter pupillae constricts the iris. The
ciliaris muscle changes the shape of the lens,
allowing the eye to focus on nearby objects
(Accommodation (eye)|accommodation).
Neither of these muscles is under voluntary
control.
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Synaptic potential
1
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP’s)
hyperpolarize the membrane and move it
farther away from the threshold
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Synaptic potential
1
This is the case for both excitatory
and Inhibitory postsynaptic
potentials
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Synaptic potential
Synaptic potentials are not static. The
concept of synaptic plasticity refers to the
changes in synaptic potential. A synaptic
potential may get stronger or weaker over
time depending on a few factors. The
quantity of neurotransmitters released can
play a large role in the future strength of
that synapse’s potential. The receptors on
the post-synaptic side also play a role,
both in their numbers, composition, and
1
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Synaptic potential
The enhancement of synaptic
potential would mean that fewer
would be needed to have the same or
larger effect, which could have farreaching medical uses
1
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Synaptic potential
1)
http://courses.washingt
on.edu/conj/neuron/pos
tsynaptic.htm.
1
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Synaptic potential
1
3) Nicoll, R.A. Roche, K.W. (2013).
Long-term potentiation. Peeling the
onion. Neuropharmacology, 7418-22.
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Synaptic potential
1
4) Journal of Neuroscience. Enhanced
cAMP Response Element-Binding
Protein Activity Increases Neuronal
Excitability, Hippocampal Long-Term
Potentiation and Classical Eyeblink
Conditioning in Alert Behaving Mice.
Agnes Gruart, Eva Benito, Jose M.
Delgado-Garcia, and Angel Barco.
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Synaptic potential
1
5) Neuroscience. Second Edition. Purves
D., Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, et al,
editors. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates, 2001.
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Kevin Levin - Synaptak
1
'Synaptak' is a floating telekinetic brain in
a jar with a computerized face and
tentacles and he is the second in
command of the group.
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Kevin Levin - Synaptak
1
Synaptak had the abilitiy to levitate and
has psychic powers of telepathy; being
able to read the thoughts of others,
telekinesis; being able to lift opponents
and objects up with the use of his mind,
and can project mind blasts and force
fields from his brain
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Kevin Levin - Synaptak
In The Vengeance of Vilgax Pt. 1,
Synaptak and Tini are defeated by
Vilgax before his fight with Ultimos.
1
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Non-dual - Vijñapti-mātra
One of the main features of Yogācāra
philosophy is the concept of vijñapti-mātra. It
is often used interchangeably with the term
citta-mātra, but they have different meanings.
The standard translation of both terms is
consciousness-only or mind-only. Several
modern researchers object this translation,
and the accompanying label of absolute
idealism or idealistic monism. A better
translation for vijñapti-mātra is
representation-only.
1
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Non-dual - Vijñapti-mātra
1
According to Kochumuttom, Yogacara
is a realistic pluralism. It does not
deny the existence of individual
beings:
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Non-dual - Vijñapti-mātra
1
Vijñapti-mātra then
means mere
representation of
consciousness:
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Non-dual - Vijñapti-mātra
1
The term vijñapti-mātra replaced the more
metaphysical term citta-mātra used in the
Lankavatara Sutra
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Developmental plasticity - Synaptic plasticity
This regulatory process allows the
strengthening of important or frequently
used synaptic connections while reducing
the amount of weak connections.
1
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Environmental enrichment (neural) - Synaptogenesis
Rats raised with environmental
enrichment have thicker cerebral
cortices(3.3–7%) that contain 25% more
synapses
1
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SnapTag
1
'SnapTag', invented by SpyderLynk, is
a Mobile barcode|2D mobile barcode
alternative similar to a QR code, but
that uses an icon or company logo and
code ring rather than a square pattern
of black dots.
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SnapTag
1
Similar to a QR code, SnapTags can be
used to take consumers to a brand’s
website, but can also facilitate Mobile
purchasing|mobile purchases,
coupon downloads, free sample
requests, video views, promotional
entries, Facebook
like#Like|Facebook Likes, Pinterest
Pins, Twitter Follows, Posts and
Tweets. SnapTags offer back-end data
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SnapTag - Use in mobile operating systems
1
SnapTags can be used in Google's mobile
Android operating system and iOS devices
(iPhone/iPod/iPad) using The SnapTag
Reader App or third party apps that have
integrated the SnapTag Reader SDK.
SnapTags can also be used by standard
camera phones by taking a picture of the
SnapTag and texting it to the designated
short code or email address.
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Synaptic Package Manager
'Synaptic' is a GTK+-based graphical
user interface for Advanced Packaging
Tool (APT). APT is the Package
management system used by Debian
and its derivatives. Synaptic is usually
used on systems based on Deb (file
format)|deb packages but can also be
used on systems based on RPM
Package Manager|RPM packages. It can
be used to install, remove and upgrade
software packages and to add Software
repository|repositories.
1
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
1
* Install, remove, upgrade
and downgrade single and
multiple packages
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
* Find packages by name,
description and several other
attributes
1
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
* Select packages by status,
section, name or a custom filter
1
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
1
* Sort packages by name,
status, size or version
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
* Browse available
online documentation
related to a package
1
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
1
* Lock packages to the current
version
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
1
* Built-in terminal emulator for the
package manager
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
* Allows creation of download
scripts (see Usage for more details)
1
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
1
It also has the following
features:
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
1
* Configure packages
through the debconf
system
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Synaptic Package Manager - Features
When one installs a new package,
Aptitude (software)|Aptitude, like Synaptic,
automatically installs required packages
(called dependencies). But when one
removes a manually installed package,
Aptitude also has the ability to remove the
no-longer-used packages that were
automatically installed. The same effect,
however, can be achieved through a
terminal with an apt command: apt-get
autoremove.
1
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Synaptic Package Manager - Usage
1
The package manager enables the user
to install, to upgrade or to remove
software packages. To install a
package a user must search for the
program they want and mark it for
installation. Changes are not applied
instantly; the user must first mark all
changes and then apply them.
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Synaptic Package Manager - History
Synaptic development was funded by
Conectiva, which asked Alfredo Kojima,
then an employee, to write a graphical
front-end for APT, continuing the work
initiated with the creation of the APT RPM
back-end, apt-rpm.
1
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Snaptun Stone
In Norse mythology, 'Loki' (), 'Loptr', or
'Hveðrungr' is a Æsir|god or jötunn (or both)
1
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Snaptun Stone
1
Loki's relation with the gods varies by
source. Loki sometimes assists the
gods and sometimes causes problems
for them. Loki is a Shapeshifting|shape
shifter and in separate incidents he
appears in the form of a salmon, mare,
Seal (mammal)|seal, a Fly (animal)|fly,
and possibly Þökk|an elderly woman.
Loki's positive relations with the gods
end with his role in engineering the
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Snaptun Stone
In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose
Edda, the goddess Skaði is responsible for
placing a serpent above him while he is
bound
1
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Snaptun Stone
1
Loki may be depicted on the Snaptun
Stone, the Loki#Kirkby Stephen Stone
and Gosforth Cross|Kirkby Stephen
Stone, and the Gosforth Cross
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Snaptun Stone - Names
1
The etymology of the name Loki has yet to
be solved. It may be related to Old Norse
luka, meaning close (potentially pointing to
Loki's role at Ragnarök).Simek (2007:195).
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Snaptun Stone - Names
In various poems from the Poetic
Edda (stanza 2 of Lokasenna, stanza
41 of Hyndluljóð, and stanza 26 of
Fjölsvinnsmál), and sections of the
Prose Edda (chapter 32 of
Gylfaginning, stanza 8 of Haustlöng,
and stanza 1 of Þórsdrápa) Loki is
alternately referred to as Loptr, which
is generally considered derived from
Old Norse lopt meaning air, and
therefore points to an association with
the air.Simek (2007:197).
1
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Snaptun Stone - Names
1
The name Hveðrungr (Old Norse '?roarer')
is also used in reference to Loki, occurring
in names for Hel (such as in Ynglingatal;
hveðrungs mær) and in reference to Fenrir
(as in Völuspa).Simek (2007:166).
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Snaptun Stone - Poetic Edda
1
In the Poetic Edda, Loki appears (or is
referenced) in the poems Völuspá,
Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Reginsmál,
Baldrs draumar, and Hyndluljóð.
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Snaptun Stone - Völuspá
In stanza 35 of the Poetic Edda poem
Völuspá, a völva tells Odin that, among
many other things, she sees Sigyn sitting
very unhappily with her bound husband,
Loki, under a grove of hot
springs.Larrington (1998:8). In stanza 51,
during the events of Ragnarök, Loki
appears free from his bonds and is
referred to as the brother of Býleistr (here
transcribed as Byleist):
1
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Snaptun Stone - Völuspá
1
:A ship journeys from the
east, Muspell's people are
coming,
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Snaptun Stone - Völuspá
1
:There are the monstrous brood
with all the raveners,
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Snaptun Stone - Völuspá
1
In stanza 54, after consuming Odin and
being killed by Odin's son Víðarr, Fenrir is
described as Loki's kinsman.Larrington
(1998:11).
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
The poem Lokasenna (Old Norse Loki's
Quarrel) centers around Loki flyting
with other gods; Loki puts forth two
stanzas of insults while the receiving
figure responds with a single stanza,
and then another figure chimes in
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
Loki comes out of the woods,
and meets Eldir outside of the
hall
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
Breaking the silence, Loki says that,
thirsty, he had come to these halls
from a long way away to ask the gods
for a drink of the famous mead
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
:Do you remember, Odin, when in
bygone days
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
:You said you would never drink
ale
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
Odin then asks his silent son Víðarr to
sit up, so that Loki (here referred to as
the wolf's father) may sit at the feast,
and so that he may not speak words of
blame to the gods in Ægir's hall
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
The goddess Iðunn interrupts, asking
Bragi, as a service to his relatives and
adopted relatives, not to say words of
blame to Loki in Ægir's hall
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
Odin says that Loki must be insane to
make Gefjun his enemy, as her
wisdom about the fates of men may
equal Odin's own
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
Frigg, a major goddess and Odin's
wife, says that what Loki and Odin did
in the ancient past should not be
spoken of in front of others, and that
ancient matters should always remain
hidden
1
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
The goddess Freyja declares that Loki
must be mad, stating that Frigg knows all
fate, yet she does not speak it
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
Loki tells Njörðr to be silent, recalling
Njörðr's status as once having been a
hostage from the Vanir to the Æsir during
the Æsir-Vanir War, that the daughters of
Hymir once used Njörðr as a pisspot,
urinating in his mouth (an otherwise
unattested comment)
1
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
The god Tyr defends Freyr, to which
Loki replies that Tyr should be silent,
for Tyr cannot deal straight with people,
and points out that it was Loki's son,
the wolf Fenrir, who tore Tyr's hand off
1
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
Freyr himself interrupts at this point, and
says that he sees a wolf lying before a
river mouth, and that, unless Loki is
immediately silent, like the wolf, Loki shall
also be bound until Ragnarök
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
The god Heimdallr says that Loki is drunk and
witless, and asks Loki why he won't stop speaking
1
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
Sif, wife of Thor, goes forth and pours
Loki a glass of mead into a crystal cup
in a prose narrative
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
Thor arrives, and tells Loki to be
silent, referring to him as an evil
creature, stating that with his hammer
Mjöllnir he will silence Loki by
hammering his head from his
shoulders
1
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
In response to Thor, Loki says that he
spoke before the Æsir, and before the
sons of the Æsir what his spirit urged him
to say, yet before Thor alone he will leave,
as he knows that Thor does strike. Loki
ends the poetic verses of Lokasenna with
a final stanza:
1
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
:Ale you brewed, Ægir, and you
will never again hold a feast;
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
:all your possessions which are
here inside—
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
1
:and may your back be
burnt!Larrington
(1998:95).
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Snaptun Stone - Lokasenna
Following this final stanza a prose
section details that after Loki left the
hall, he disguised himself as a salmon
and hid in the waterfall of
Franangrsfors, where the Æsir caught
him
1
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Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða
1
In the poem Þrymskviða, Thor wakes
and finds that his powerful hammer,
Mjöllnir, is missing. Thor turns to
Loki first, and tells him that nobody
knows that the hammer has been
stolen. The two then go to the court of
the goddess Freyja, and Thor asks her
if he may borrow her feather cloak so
that he may attempt to find Mjöllnir.
Freyja agrees, saying she'd lend it
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Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða
1
In Jötunheimr, the jötunn Þrymr sits on
a tumulus|burial mound, plaiting
golden collars for his female dogs, and
trimming the manes of his horses
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Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða
Thor asks Loki if his efforts were
successful, and that Loki should tell
him while he's still in the air as tales
often escape a sitting man, and the
man lying down often barks out lies
1
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Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða
1
As a result, the gods and goddesses
meet and hold a Thing
(assembly)|thing to discuss and
debate the matter
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Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða
After riding together in Thor's
Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr|goatdriven chariot, the two, disguised,
arrive in Jötunheimr. Þrymr
commands the jötnar in his hall to
spread straw on the benches, for
Freyja has arrived to be his wife.
Þrymr recounts his treasured animals
and objects, stating that Freyja was all
that he was missing in his
1
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Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða
1
Early in the evening, the disguised Loki
and Thor meet in the with the Þrymr and
the assembled jötnar
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Snaptun Stone - Þrymskviða
1
The wretched sister of the jötnar appears,
asks for a bridal gift from Freyja, and the
jötnar bring out Mjöllnir to sanctify the
bride, to lay it on her lap, and marry the
two by the hand of the goddess Vár. Thor
laughs internally when he sees the
hammer, takes hold of it, strikes Þrymr,
beats all of the jötnar, and kills the older
sister of the jötnar.Larrington (1998:101).
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Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál
1
Loki appears in both
prose and the first six
stanzas of the poem
Reginsmál
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Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál
1
While the three gods are at the falls,
Ótr (in the form of an otter) catches a
salmon and eats it on a river bank, his
eyes shut, when Loki hits and kills
him with a stone
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Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál
1
Loki is sent to retrieve the gold, and Loki
goes to the goddess Rán, borrows her net,
and then goes back to the Andvara-falls
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Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál
1
Loki looks over the gold that Andvari
possesses, and after Andvari hands
over all of his gold, Andvari holds on
to but a single ring; the ring
Andvarinaut, which Loki also takes.
Andvari, now in the form of a dwarf,
goes into a rock, and tells Loki that the
gold will result in the death of two
brothers, will cause strife between
eight princes, and will be useless to
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Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál
Loki returns, and the three gods give
Hreidmar the money from the gold hoard
and flatten out the otter skin, stretch out its
legs, and heap gold atop it, covering it.
Hreidmar looks it over, and notices a
single hair that has not been covered.
Hreidmar demands that it be covered as
well. Odin puts forth the ring Andvarinaut,
covering the single hair.
1
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Snaptun Stone - Reginsmál
1
Loki states that they have now handed
over the gold, and that gold is cursed as
Andvari is, and that it will be the death of
Hreidmar and Regin both
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Snaptun Stone - Baldrs draumar
In Baldr draumar, Odin has awoken a
deceased völva in Hel (location)|Hel, and
questions her repeatedly about his son
Baldr's bad dreams. Loki is mentioned in
stanza 14, the final stanza of the poem,
where the völva tells Odin to ride home, to
be proud of himself, and that no one else
will come visit until Loki is loose, escaped
from his bonds and the onset of
Ragnarök.Larrington (1998:245).
1
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Snaptun Stone - Hyndluljóð
Loki is referenced in two stanzas in
Völuspá hin skamma, found within the
poem Hyndluljóð. The first stanza notes
that Loki produced the wolf with the jötunn
Angrboða, that Loki himself gave birth to
the horse Sleipnir by the stallion Svaðilfari,
and that Loki (referred to as the brother of
Býleistr) thirdly gave birth to the worst of
all marvels. This stanza is followed by:
1
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Snaptun Stone - Hyndluljóð
1
:Loki ate some of the
heart, the thoughtstone of a woman,
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Snaptun Stone - Hyndluljóð
:roasted on a
Tilia|linden-wood fire,
he found it half-cooked;
1
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Snaptun Stone - Hyndluljóð
1
In the second of the two stanzas, Loki
is referred to as Lopt. Loki's
consumption of a woman's heart is
otherwise unattested.Larrington
(1998:296).
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Neurexin - Role in synaptic maturation
1
While neuroligin and neurexin are not
required for synaptic formation, they
are essential components for proper
function.
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Synaptonemal complex
The synaptonemal complex is a
tripartite structure consisting of two
parallel lateral regions and a central
element.
1
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Synaptonemal complex
Three specific components of the
synaptonemal complex have been
characterized: SC protein-1 (SYCP1),
SC protein-2 (SYCP2), and SC protein-3
(SYCP3). In humans, the SYCP1 gene
is on chromosome 1p13; the SYCP2
gene is on chromosome 20q13.33; and
the gene for SYCP3 is on chromosome
12q.
1
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Synaptonemal complex
1
The SCs can be seen with the light microscope
using silver staining or with immunofluorescence
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Synaptonemal complex
1
techniques that label the
proteins SYCP3 or SYCP2.
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Synaptonemal complex
1
This tripartite structure is seen during
the pachytene stage of the first meiotic
prophase, both in males and in females
during gametogenesis. Previous to the
pachytene stage, during leptonema, the
lateral elements begin to form and they
initiate and complete their pairing
during the zygotene stage. After
pachynema ends, the SC usually
becomes disassembled and can no
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Synaptonemal complex
1
Formation of the SC usually reflects the
pairing or synapsis of homologous
chromosomes and may be used to probe
the presence of pairing abnormalities in
individuals carrying chromosomal
abnormalities, either in number or in the
chromosomal structure.
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Synaptonemal complex
The sex chromosomes in male
mammals show only partial synapsis
as they usually form only a short SC in
the XY pair.
1
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Synaptonemal complex
The SC shows very little structural
variability among eukaryotic organisms
despite some significant protein
differences.
1
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Synaptonemal complex
1
In many organisms the SC carries one
or several recombination nodules
associated to its central space. These
nodules are thought to correspond to
mature genetic recombination events
or crossovers.
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Synaptonemal complex
1
In cell development the synaptonemal complex
disappears during the late prophase of meiosis I.
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Synaptonemal complex
One aspect of meiosis research (in
genetics, molecular biology, and
reproductive medicine) involving
synaptonemal complexes is how they (or
what they do) can be affected and
damaged by chemical exposure,
specifically by toxins like bisphenol A (an
experiment at Harvard Medical School by
Dr
1
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Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission
# In neurons that are involved in
chemical synaptic transmission,
neurotransmitters are synthesized either
in the neuronal cell body, or within the
presynaptic terminal, depending on the
type of neurotransmitter being
synthesized and the location of enzymes
involved in its synthesis. These
neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic
vesicles that remain bound near the
membrane by synapsin|calciuminfluenced proteins.
1
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Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission
# In order to trigger the process of
chemical synaptic transmission, upstream
activity causes an action potential to
invade the presynaptic terminal.
1
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Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission
# This depolarizing current reaches the
presynaptic terminal, and the membrane
depolarization that it causes there initiates
the opening of voltage-gated calcium
channels present on the presynaptic
membrane.
1
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Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission
1
# There is high concentration of calcium
in the synaptic cleft between the two
participating neurons (presynaptic and
postsynaptic). This difference in calcium
concentration between the synaptic cleft
and the inside of the presynaptic terminal
establishes a strong concentration
gradient that drives the calcium into the
presynaptic terminal upon opening of
these voltage-gated calcium channels.
This influx of calcium into the presynaptic
terminal is necessary for neurotransmitter
release.
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Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission
1
# After entering the presynaptic terminal, the
calcium binds a protein called synaptotagmin,
which is located on the membrane of the
synaptic vesicles. This protein interacts with
other proteins called SNARE
(protein)|SNAREs in order to induce vesicle
fusion with the presynaptic membrane. As a
result of this vesicle fusion, the
neurotransmitters that had been packaged
into the synaptic vesicle are released into the
synapse, where they diffuse across the
synaptic cleft.
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Excitatory neuron - Synaptic transmission
The selective permeability of these
channels allow certain ions to move along
their electrochemical gradients, inducing a
current across the postsynaptic membrane
that determines an excitatory or inhibitory
response.
1
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Excitatory neuron - Responses of the postsynaptic neuron
1
On the other hand, if the reversal potential
of the receptor to which the
neurotransmitter binds is lower than the
threshold potential, an inhibitory
postsynaptic potential will occur (IPSP).
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Excitatory neuron - Responses of the postsynaptic neuron
In a similar way, the postsynaptic
neuron can sum together EPSPs from
multiple synapses with other neurons
in a process called spatial summation.
1
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
Some aptronyms are irony|ironic
rather than descriptive, being called
'inaptronyms' by Gene Weingarten of
the Washington
Post[http://www.washingtonpost.com
/wpdyn/content/discussion/2006/07/11/
DI2006071100616.html]. A notable
example is the former Archbishop of
Manila, Jaime Sin|Jaime L. Sin who in
1
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
* Lance Armstrong, a Tour de Francewinning cyclist, became famous because
of leg, not arm, strength.
1
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
* John Balance, English musician, died after falling
from a two story balcony at his home.
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
* Grant Balfour, MLB pitcher (closer),
although as a pitcher base on
balls|ball four is generally not a good
thing
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
* Frank Beard (musician)|Frank Beard, the only
member of ZZ Top to not have a beard
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
* Don Black (white nationalist)|Don
Black, White supremacist
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
* Edward Cocaine,
arrested on drug
possession, but for Xanax
1
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
* Samuel Foote, a comic actor who lost a
leg in a horseriding accident in 1766, and
made jokes on stage about “Foote and
leg, and leg and foot”[http://www.thetls.co.uk/tls/public/article1179826.ece]
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
* Dexter Fowler, MLB outfielder (a batter can't
get a hit if all he hits are foul balls)
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
* Hudson Freeze, co-discoverer of Thermus
aquaticus, a bacteria that thrives in hot water
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
* Teller (magician), the usually silent half of the
comedy magic duo Penn Teller
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
* Two anti-Christian black metal
musicians, Gaahl and Varg Vikernes were
given the name Kristian at birth.
1
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Charactonym - Inaptronyms
1
Place names can also be aptronyms,
perhaps unintentionally, such as the
former Liberty Jail, so called because
of its location in Liberty, Missouri,
USA. Business names can be
aptronyms too, such as Brownie Septic
Systems (now Brownie Environmental
Services) of Orlando, Florida, named
after the owner.
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Naptown Roller Girls
1
The home bouts of the Naptown Roller
Girls are held in the Fairgrounds
Coliseum|Pepsi Coliseum at the Indiana
State Fairgrounds in Indianapolis
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Naptown Roller Girls - Current teams
1
The league is composed of three home
teams: The Tornado Sirens (is the ATeam), The Warning Belles (is the Bteam) and The 3rd Alarm (is the Cteam).
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Neuromuscular junction disease - Postsynaptic structure
1
Post synaptically the membrane is
folded into secondary synaptic folds
with a concentration of around 20,000
receptors per micrometer
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Neuromuscular junction disease - Presynaptic
One discovered type of congenital
myasthenia gravis can affect the
junction presynaptically by a mutation
in the gene encoding choline acetyl
transferase
1
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Neuromuscular junction disease - Presynaptic
1
Other ion channels can also be disrupted,
such as the potassium channels causing
inefficient repolarization at the presynaptic
membrane as in neuromyotonia.
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Neuromuscular junction disease - Postsynaptic
Here is a list of the diseases:
Myasthenia Gravis, Neonatal
Myasthenia Gravis, Drug Induced
Myasthenia Gravis and several types
of Congenital myasthenia where the
product of the mutated gene is a
postsynaptic protein.
1
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