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Understanding Perceptual Motor Function Building Better Robots 4/25/2006 1 4/25/2006 2 1 4/25/2006 3 • Example: Dana Ballard and Mary Hayhoe (U. of Rochester) are interested in active vision: – Subjects are unaware of gross changes in the visual scene made during saccades. – Shows that visual system works to recover only that information that is necessary for the task at hand. • Complete pathway from sensors in skin or eyes to somatosensory cortex to motor cortex to muscle. 4/25/2006 4 2 Acuity of infants. 4/25/2006 5 Visual acuity of infants • The spatial acuity (ability to see fine detail) of babies is considerably worse than that of adults (it's around 20/400 to 20/600 at age 1 month). • However, the optics of babies' eyes are fine…it's the retina and cortex that aren't fully developed. 4/25/2006 6 3 Acuity of infants. 4/25/2006 7 Spatial acuity of infants. 4/25/2006 8 4 Spatial acuity of infants. 4/25/2006 9 Spatial acuity of infants. 4/25/2006 10 5 Retina • Although babies have a normal density of rods, the lattice of cones covering the retina is very different than at adulthood. • Specifically, the cones of babies are – (1) wider (even in the fovea), yielding course resolution; – and (2) shorter, so that they hold less photopigment. The cone receptors in adults cover approximately 68% of the adult fovea, but only 2% of newborns. 4/25/2006 11 Cortex • The visual cortex of babies is also partially developed. • These 3 drawings of neurons at different stages of development show that the dendritic trees and interconnections of neurons become increasingly complex over the first 6 months of life. 4/25/2006 12 6 Cellular Basis of Brain Development • • • • • Migration of cells Formation and growth of axons Formation of dendrites Formation of synaptic connections Myelination 4/25/2006 13 Important Features (2) in Program of Development 1) Subcomponents of nervous system are formed from cells whose destination and function are largely predetermined before they migrate from the wall of ventricles 2) Development is marked by an initial abundance of cells, branches, and connections, with important part of subsequent maturation consisting of cell death or pruning back of initial surfeit 4/25/2006 14 7 4/25/2006 15 4/25/2006 16 8 Postnatal Brain Development •Growth spurts: –3-10 months to 1.5 years (30% weight increase) –2 to 4 years (5% to 10% weight increase) –6 to 8 years –10 to 12 years –14 to 16 years (**note consistency of ages with major Piagetian stage changes) 4/25/2006 17 Earliest Capacities • Hearing: – Newborns startle to loud noise – Turn heads to source of noise, indicating localization – Not as acute for some parts of the sound spectrum as when older – Sensitivity to sound improves dramatically in infancy and then more slowly until the age of 10 (at which point it reaches adult levels) 4/25/2006 18 9 Biological-Maturation Perspective • Baby becomes able to interact with environment in increasingly complicated ways because of brain maturation 4/25/2006 19 4/25/2006 20 10 4/25/2006 21 Environmental-Learning Perspective • Innate reflexes become coordinated via learning, a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience with the environment 4/25/2006 22 11 Environmental-Learning Perspective • Innate reflexes become coordinated via learning, a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience with the environment – – – – 4/25/2006 habituation classical conditioning operant conditioning imitation 23 12