Download Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon

Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
GENERALITIES OF THE ADULT BRAIN
 Average weight = 1.3-1.4 kg
o 2-3% of body weight
 Total intracranial volume = 1,700 mL
o Brain = 1,400 mL (80%)
o Blood = 150 mL (10%)
o CSF = 150 mL (10%)
 Number of neurons = 100 Billion
o Neocortical neurons of a Female = 19.3 Billion
o Neocortical neurons of a Male = 22.8 Billion
 Number of glial cells = 10-50 times greater than the number of neurons
 Total number of synapses = 60-240 Trillion
 Length of myelinated fibers = 150,000-180,000 km
 Total surface area = 2.5 ft2
Note: The brain is supratentorial
 It is above the tentorium cerebelli—a fold of dura that inserts on top of the cerebellum
 Note: Diencephalon + Telencephalon = Encephalon (the brain)
EVOLUTION, EMBRYOLOGY, AND HISTOLOGY OF THE TRIUNE BRAIN
The Triune Brain Theory is a model of the evolution of the vertebrate forebrain and behavior
as proposed by Dr. Paul D. MacLean. The triune brain consists of the following:
 Reptilian cortex (Lizard Brain/Dinosaur Brain)—Instinctual Brain
 Paleomammalian cortex (The Limbic System)—Emotional/Feeling Brain
 Neomammalian cortex (The neocortex, gyri)—Rational/Thinking Brain
Evolutionary explanation of the Triune Brain:
 The older ―inner tube‖ containing the limbic lobe, amygdala, basal forebrain,
olfactory structures, hypothalamus, and thalamic nuclei function mostly about
Affection such as:
o Internal regulation
o Consciousness
o Emotions
o Motivation
 The newer ―outer tube‖ containing the neocortex, basal ganglia, thalamic
connections function in Cognition:
o Higher cognition
o Language
o Motor programming
o Sensory processing (visual, somatosensory, auditory)
There are four processes that drive the maturation of the nervous system:
 DPMM (mnemonic: Di Pa Mature? Mag-isip!)
 DETERMINATION
o Ectodermal involvement (neuron pre-cursor)
 Same ectodermal involvement to develop the skin
o Neural induction
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
 PROLIFERATION
o Driving force: Mitosis
 MIGRATION
o After cell division, neurons migrate to their appropriate final destination and settle
there
 The migration is regulated and directed by the radial glial cells
 MATURATION
o Once neurons are settled, the neurons establish interconnections through
dendritic/axonal connections
o Myelination is the last step towards complete maturation
 Completed at 2 years old
Note: The Cerebral Cortex is derived from the telencephalic vesicle
 The development is due to active migration of cells from the mantle layer (middle)
o It outgrew the white matter, therefore, in the cortex:
 Outer gray
 Inner white
 The cortical mass adapts to limited cranium space
o And the adaptation is exhibited by the convolutions as a result of the
overexpansion of nervous tissue within the limited intracranial space
 Types of Cortices
o Isocortex (Neocortex)—Homogenetic cortex
 Has 6 cytoarchitectonic layers
1 1st layer—Molecular Layer
a AKA Plexiform Layer
b Few, small cells and numerous dendrites and axons;
interwoven; parallel to surface
c Cells here exhibit paucity due to the Horizontal Cells of
Cajal which disappeared in the neonatal era
2 2nd layer—External Granular Layer
3 3rd layer—External Pyramidal Layer
a Layers 2 and 3 contain small-medium pyramidal cells
i Conical/Pear-shaped tips directed toward surface
4 4th layer—Internal Granular Layer (Stellate)
a Well demarcated, small, compact, multipolar granule cells:
chief receptive center for incoming impulses
5 5th layer—Internal Pyramidal Layer
a Layer with the biggest cells in pre-central gyrus, chief
discharge center for efferent impulses
i Ex: Giant Pyramidal Cells of Betz
6 6th layer—Multiform layer (Fusiform)
a Long axis perpendicular tosurface; contribute to
efferents
7 Mnemonic: MoL-EG-EP-IG-IP-Mul
 Also has 6 myeloarchitectonic layers
 Deals with motor and sensory control
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
o
o
 More evolved
 The type of cortex seen in most mammalian brains
Allocortex—Heterogenetic cortex
 Has 3 layers
 More primitive
 Can receive olfactory influences
 Seen in lower animals (rats)
 Two types of Allocortex:
1 Paleocortex
a Has an entorhinal cortex
b Has a primary olfactory cortex
2 Archicortex
a Has a hippocampal formation—seat of recent
memory
Mesocortex
 Vary from 4-5 layers
 Cortical White Matter
o It is a ―Homogenous mass‖
o It below the cortex
o It envelopes the:
 Corpus striatum
 Ventricular spaces
o Function:
 Pathways for information TO and FROM the cortex
o Types of Fibers:
 Association Fibers
1 Interconnection areas within the hemisphere
2 Types:
a Short Association Fibers
i Connect adjacent gyri
b Long Association Fibers
i Connect distant areas such as:
 Cingulum
 Uncinate
 Commissural Fibers
1 Interconnect corresponding structures between the 2 hemispheres
a Corpus Callosum
i Largest; superior to diencephalon
ii Roofs the lateral ventricles
iii Parts (rostrocaudal)
 Rostrum
 Genu—rostrally interconnect frontal lobes
via the minor forceps
 Body
 Splenium—caudally interconnect occipital
lobs via the major forceps
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
Anterior Commissure
i Caudal to rostrum (frontal/temporal lobes)
c Hippocampal Commissure
i Inferior to Splenium (hippocampus)
d Posterior Commissure
i Connects caudal diencephalon
ii Crosses base of the pineal gland posterior to the
cerebral aqueduct
e Habenular Commissure
i Connects caudal diencephalon (habenular
nuclei)
 Projection Fibers
1 Interconnects distal areas
2 Type of connection:
a Corticopetal
i From outside of brain to cerebral cortex
b Corticofugal
i From cerebral cortex to outside of brain
3 Contains the internal capsule
a Large bundles!
b Three parts:
i Anterior Limb
 It is between caudate and lenticular
nuclei
 Connection from thalamus to frontal lobe
 Contains the lentiform nucleus
ii Posterior Limb
 Between dorsal thalamus and lenticular
nuclei
 Anterior portion: Connects with
corticospinal tract
 Posterior portion: connects with thalamus
iii Genu
 Intersection; level of the interventricular
foramen
 Connection with the corticobulbar tract
 The Corona Radiata
o ―Radiating crown‖
o Fibers (capsule) flare out, distal to Basal Ganglia
o Converging corticofugal, diverging corticopetal
b
 Theory of Cerebral Dominance
o Left Hemisphere—dominant for comprehension and expression of language;
arithmetic and analytical function
o Right Hemisphere—melodic function of speech; spatial perception
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
IMPORTANT LANDMARKS OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
A. Lateral view of the brain
B. Medial view (Midsagittal cut) of the brain
Figure 1. Views of the brain with their corresponding Brodmann Areas (the numbers).
Legend: Yellow = Frontal Lobe, Green = Parietal Lobe, Blue = Occipital Lobe, and Red =
Temporal Lobe
 Central Sulcus of Rolando
o AKA Rolandic Sulcus
o Vertically running with continuous gyri behind it and in front of it
o Almost reaches the Lateral Fissure/Sylvian Fissure but it does not
 It is 2 cm deep, but not deep enough to be called a ‗fissure‘
 Lateral Fissure
o AKA Sylvian Fissure
o As the name implies, it is laterally located
 It is horizontal and ascends
o Separates the temporal lobe from the parietal lobe
 Parietooccipital Sulcus
o Separates the Parietal lobe from the Occipital lobe
 Corpus Callosum
o Medially located
o Connects the L and R cerebral cortices
o Parts:
 Rostrum—most anterior, most rostral part
 Genu
 Body
 Splenium—most posteror part, free-end
LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
A. Frontal Lobe—anterior to the rolandic sulcus, above the sylvian fissure
 Pre-central gyrus
o In front of the Rolandic sulcus
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
It is the primary motor area
 Functions for the initiate of highly skilled and fine movements
1 Lesion at this area results in apraxia—difficulty to repeat a previously
learned movement
a Ex: Dressing up one‘s self
o Classified as Brodmann’s Area 4 (BA4)
 Anterior to BA4 is BA6
1 BA6 functions in voluntary motor function
2 Supplementary area for sequential performance of multiple
movements
 Pre-central sulcus—in front of the pre-central gyrus
o Frontal lobe is divided by 2 sulci
 Superior Frontal sulcus
 Inferior Frontal sulcus
o The 2 sulci divide the divide the frontal lobe into gyri
 Superior Frontal Gyrus
 Middle Frontal Gyrus
 Inferior Frontal Gyrus
1 The IFG is divided into 3 areas by the rami (branches) of the Sylvian
Fissure:
a Pars orbitalis
b Pars triangularis
c Pars opercularis
d On the left side, the pars opercularis and pars
triangularis are considered to be BA 44&45
(respectively)
i They are important areas for motor aspect of
speech
ii Lesion at these areas brings about expressive
aphasia
 AKA non-fluent aphasia/motor aphasia
 The inability/difficulty to speak
 Frontal Eyefield
o Extends between BA 6&8 (at the depth of the pre-central sulcus)
o For voluntary eye movement usually to catch motion in the visual field (visual
pursuit)
o Lesions:
 Irritative: Away from the lesion
 Destructive: Toward the lesion
o
 Pre-frontal cortex
o BA 9, 10, 11
o Location is dorsolateral, orbitomedial
o Function: For affective behavior, judgment, working memory, problem
solving, basta it is the most ―thinking‖ cortex/part of the brain
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
 Paracentral lobule
o Located on the medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere
o It is the continuation of the pre-central gyrus and post-central gyrus medially
o Parts:
 Anterior Part
1 Extension of the pre-central gyrus medially
2 Motor in function
a Controls urinary bladder sphincters
 Posterior Part
1 Extension of the post-central gyrus medially
2 Sensory in function
B. PARIETAL LOBE—posterior to the rolandic sulcus, above the sylvian fissure
 Post-central gyrus
o Primary Sensory Area
o Continuous with the posterior paracentral gyrus
 Post-central gyrus + Posterior paracentral gyrus = Primary
Somatosensory Cortex
1 In the motor homunculus, the following are represented in the
Primary Somatosensory Cortex:
a Lateral 1/3 = face
b Middle 1/3 = UE
c Medial 1/3 = Hip, thigh, trunk
d Paracentral lobule = Leg, foot, genitals
2 Function of the Primary Somatosensory Cortex:
a Somesthetic
i The appreciation and interpretation of sensation
coming from the body
o Borders:
 Rostrally: Imaginary line from rolandic sulcus to cingulate sulcus
 Caudally: Marginal sulcus
o BA 3, 1, 2, (Bat hindi na lang BA 1,2,3? IDK. No one knows.)
 Area 1—rapidly adapting cutaneous receptors + proprioceptive impulses
 Area 2/Area 3A—propioceptive impulses
 Area 3B—slowly adapting cutaneous receptors
o Lesion at the BA 3, 1, 2 results in:
 Loss of sensation of discriminative touch
 Loss of sensation of proprioception
 Loss of sensation of pain, temperature, and light touch
 Intraparietal sulcus
o Divides parietal lobe into 2 lobules
 Superior Parietal Lobule (somesthetic association area)
1 AKA BA 5 and 7
2 Functions in the perception of shape, size, and texture—
identification of object by contact (stereognosis)
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
Ex: If you close your eyes and your friend puts a ball on
your hands, you know that the object is a ball even
without looking at it
3 Lesion at BA 5 and 7 will result in:
a If lesion is at the left (dominant): Bilateral optical
ataxia
b If lesion is at the right (non-dominant): Contralateral
hemineglect
 Inferior Parietal Lobule
1 Divided into 2 areas:
a Supramarginal gyrus
i Hugs the tip of the Sylvian Fissure
b Angular gyrus
i Hugs the tip of the Superior Temporal Sulcus
ii At the left angular gyrus is where the Wernicke’s
Area (BA 39) is located
 Lesion at the Wernicke‘s Area makes the
patient Alexic (Alexia)—inability to
read/cannot comprehend written word
 BA 39, together with BA 40, forms the
Major Association Cortex (MAC)
o Functions in higher order and
complex multisensory perception
 Lesion at MAC will result in
Agnosia—inability to
recognize/perceive sensory
information despite intact
sensory processing
Note: Other Sensory Cortical Areas
 Primary gustatory cortex (BA 43) – Parietal operculum
 Primary olfactory cortex – pyriform cortex and periamygdaloid areas
 Secondary olfactory cortical area – entorhinal cortex
 Primary vestibular cortex – posterior insular cortex
a
C. Temporal Lobe—below the Sylvian Fissure, other functions of temporal lobe is associated
with the limbic system and hippocampus
 Presence of 2 sulci
o Superior Temporal Sulcus—ends in angular gyrus
o Middle Temporal Sulcus
o The 2 sulci divide temporal lobe into 3 gyri
 Superior Temporal Gyrus
1 AKA BA 41 & 42
2 Functions as the primary auditory cortex
3 Within the lateral fissure area, the Temporal Gyrus of Heschl is
seen
4 Lesion at STG produces impairment in sound localization in space and
diminution of hearing bilaterally but more contralaterally
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
So, if the right STG is injured, hearing from both left and
right ears will be impaired. However, the impairment is
more marked in the contralateral sideleft ear
 Middle Temporal Gyrus
 Inferior Temporal Gyrus
 Wernicke’s Area for Spoken Word
o AKA BA 22
o Lesion at BA 22 results in Wernicke’s aphasia or fluent aphasia or receptive
aphasia
 The patient can hear verbalized words but cannot understand or make
sense of the words
o BA 22, together with BA 24 forms the Auditory Association Cortex
 AAC functions in the interpretation of spoken sound
 Medial view of the Temporal Lobe
o Corpus Callosum—connects left and right cerebral hemispheres. Parts of the CC
are genu, body, and splenium:
 Genu—sends information to the pre-frontal cortex
 Body—sends information to the motor cortex
 Splenium—sends information to the occipital lobe and parietal lobe
 Above the corpus callosum is the callosal sulcus
1 Above the callosal sulcus is the cingulate gyrus
a Above the cingulate gyrus is the cingulate sulcus
a
D. Occipital Lobe
 The important landmark that demarcates the end of the parietal lobe and the start of the
occipital lobe is the parietooccipital sulcus
o In the medial surface, parietooccipital sulcus separates cuneus (occipital) from the
pre-cuneus (parietal)
 The occipital sulcus gives rise to:
o Superior Occipital Gyrus
o Inferior Occipital Gyrus
 The calcarine sulcus intersects the parietooccipital sulcus to divide the occipital lobe
into to 2 areas:
o Cuneus—anterior/above to the calcarine fissure
o Lingual Gyrus—posterior/below to the calcarine fissure
o The calcarine fissure
 Area that is directly bordering the lips of the calcarine fissure is the primary
visual cortex (BA 17)
1 Located at the medial surface of the occipital lobe at each side of the
calcarine fissure
2 Lesion at BA 17:
a Homonymous hemianopia/hemianopsia
i Both eye fields of both eyes have a blurred area.
And the blurred area is at the same side of both
eyes
 Ex: Close your left eye
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
The right ½ of the visual field is
blurred in the right eye
o Now, open left eye and close right
eye
 The right ½ of the visual
field is blurred in the left eye
There is a secondary visual cortex (BA 18&19)
a Associated with form, color, and motion of objects
o
3
E. Insular Lobe
 Oval cortex deep inside the lateral sylvian fissure and rolandic sulcus (insula)
 Has 2 kinds of gyri:
o Gyri Longi (1 set)
o Gyri Brevis (1 set)
 The insular lobe is continuous with the following lobes:
o Frontal
o Parietal
o Temporal
 Function:
o Receives nociceptive and visceromotor inputs
F. Limbic Lobe
 Most medial of all the cerebral lobes; medial ring of cortex
 Parts:
o Subcallosal gyrus
o Cingulate gyrus
o Isthmus
o Parahippocampus
o Uncus
 Function:
o Memory
o Learning
o Behavior
Final Notes:
Summary of Clinical Disorders:
 AGNOSIAS
o Inability to recognize perceived sensory information despite an intact s ensory
processing, clear mental state and naming ability
o May involve any sensory modality (visual, auditory, tactile)
 In agnosia, the sensory processing is complete and intact. It is not injured.
The sensory inputs from (example) skin reaches to the cortex . But since the
somasthetic cortex is affected, you canNOT make ―sense‖ of the thing that
touched your skin. You cannot recognize what touched your skin.
 ASTEREOGNOSIS
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
o
Intact touch, pain, position, and vibration sense but unable to tell object by touching
 Example: In the night when the lights are closed, you walk to the bathroom.
The door is shut. You try to find the doorknob and when you finally find it,
you know that it is the doorknob JUST BY touching it. Astereognosis takes
away that ability.
 APRAXIA
o Inability to perform learned complex acts in the absence of paralysis, sensory loss or
disturbance of coordination
 Example: Dressing up
1 As you grow, you learn how to ―dress up‖
2 Dressing up is a complex motor skill because it requires sequential
performance of movements
3 At age 20, you know how to dress up by yourself
4 But Dressing Apraxia makes it difficult for you to dress yourself
 APHASIA
o A defect in the expression or comprehension of any form of language
 RECEPTIVE APHASIA OR WENICKE‘S APHASIA—disorder in comprehending
the symbols necessary for language communication; may involve written or
spoken word
1 In simpler terms, difficulty/inability to comprehend what is
being said to him or what the written text says
 EXPRESSIVE APHASIA OR BROCA‘S APHASIA—disorder in programming the
symbols for communication
1 In simpler terms, difficulty/inability to speak
 ALEXIA
o Inability to comprehend written language
 In simpler terms, cannot verbalize written words/cannot read
Table 1. Summary of the Functional Areas, their functions, their BA number,
and their symptomatology once lesioned
Functional designation
Location
BA #
Lesions
Somesthetic
Parietal postcentral gyrus
Postcentral gyrus,
post. Paracentral
lobule
3,1,2
Loss of discriminative touch and
proprioception
Crude awareness of pain, temp
and light touch
Primary Sensory
Cortex S1
Slowly adapting
cutaneous receptors
Proprioception
Rapidly adapting
Secondary somesthetic Parietal - Inf. part
area
of postcentral gyrus
and sup bank and
depth of lateral
sylvian sulcus
3B
2, 3A
1
2
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
Somesthetic
association area
(stereognosis)
Perceive
shape,size,texture,
identiy by touch
Primary visual cortex
Secondary visual areas
V2-V5
Form, color, motion
Frontal eye field area
Visual pursuit,
conjugate gaze
Primary auditory
cortex
Auditory association
cortex
Comprehension of
spoken sound
Wernike’s area in
dominat hemisphere
Primary olfactory
Secondary olfactory
Entorhinal cortex
Primary vestibular
cortex
Posterior insular
cortex
Primary gustatory
cortex
Primary motor area
Skilled, fine
movements
Supplementary motor
area
Sequential
performance of
multiple tasks
Premotor area
Superior parietal
lobule
5,7
Occipital - calcarine
fissure
Occipital
17
18, 19
Frontal lobe
8
Temporal –
Heschl‘s gyrus
41,42
22,24
Bilateral – optic ataxia
Nondominant hemisphere
produces contralateral neglect
Impairment in sound
localization, more contralateral
diminution
22
Primary olfactory
area, piriform
cortex,
periamygdaloid,
prepiriform areas
Postcentral gyrus,
opposite auditory
area in superior
temporal gyrus
Parietal operculum
area
Precentral gyrus
43
4
6
6
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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Lecture 10: Cerebrum
AsturiaNOTES
Neuroscience 1: Cerebral hemispheres/Telencephalon
Voluntary, input
dependent
Wernicke’s area
Spoken
Written word
Broca’s speech area
Prefrontal cortex
Affective behavior and
judgement
Major Association Area
High order, complex
multisensory
perception
Limbic
Emotion, memory
References
22
39
44,45
Neologism, jargon, fluent,
receptive/sensory aphasia
Motor/expressive, telegraphic,
nonfluent aphasia
9,10,1
1
39, 40
Cingulate
Parahippocampus
Temporal
Frontal
23,34
38,26
-end-
1. Transcription notes by RAsturiano (A-2019) from the lecturer
2. Cerebral Cortex Notes by Aimee Rose C. Tan
Downloadable for free at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
For any corrections you may find, content or otherwise, email me at:
[email protected]
-THANKSAsturiaNOTES
By RAsturiano
#TheElusiveDoktora
AsturiaNOTES by RAsturiano UST-FMS A-2019: #TheElusiveDoktora
Nov 12, 2015. Lecturer: Dr. R. Javier—downloadable (for free!) at: www.theelusivedoktora.wordpress.com
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