Download Chapter 7 States of Consciousness II

Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 7
States of Consciousness
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Waking Consciousness
 Consciousness:
Our awareness of
ourselves and our
environments.
Conscious awareness
enables us to exert
voluntary control and to
communicate our mental
states to others.
Forms of Consciousness
AP Photo/ Ricardo Mazalan
Stuart Franklin/ Magnum Photos
Christine Brune
Bill Ling/ Digital Vision/ Getty Images
Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is
an awareness of ourselves and our environment.
States of Consciousness
Waking Consciousness
Hypnosis
 Selective Attention
 Facts and Falsehoods
 Levels of Information
Processing
 Explaining the
Hypnotized State
Sleep and Dreams
Drugs and Consciousness
 Biological Rhythms and
Sleep
 Dependence and
Addiction
 Why Do We Sleep?
 Psychoactive Drugs
 Sleep Disorders
 Influences on Drug Use
 Dreams
4
Sleep and Dreams
 Biological Rhythms
 periodic physiological fluctuations
 Annual Cycles--Geese migrate,
grizzly bears hibernate, humans
experience variations in appetite,
sleep, and mood.
 Twenty-eight-day cycles—female
menstrual cycle
Premenstrual
Syndrome
3
Recalled mood is
worse than
earlier reported
Negative mood
score
2
1
Premenstrual
Actual
Menstrual Intermenstrual
Menstrual phase
Recalled mood
Sleep and Dreams
 Biological Rhythms
 periodic physiological fluctuations
 Circadian Rhythm
 the biological clock
 regular bodily rhythms that occur on
a 24-hour cycle, such as of
wakefulness and body temperature
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include
sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it
can be altered by artificial light.
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease
(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland
and increase (evening) it at nightfall.
Sleep and Dreams
 REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep
 recurring sleep stage
 vivid dreams
 “paradoxical sleep”
 muscles are generally relaxed, but other body
systems are active
 Sleep
 periodic, natural, reversible loss of
consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness
resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or
hibernation.
Sleep and Dreams
 Measuring sleep activity
Brain Waves and
Sleep Stages
 Alpha Waves
 slow waves of a
relaxed, awake
brain
 Delta Waves
 large, slow waves
of deep sleep
 Hallucinations
 false sensory
experiences (typical
of stage 1 sleep)
Awake but Relaxed
When an individual closes his eyes but remains
awake, his brain activity slows down to a large
amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14
cps). A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain
activity.
Sleep Stages 1-2
During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain
enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form
called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is
daydreaming shows theta activity.
Theta Waves
Sleep Stages 3-4
During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activity
slows down. There are large-amplitude, slow
delta waves (1.5-4 cps).
Stage 5: REM Sleep
After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the
sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage
1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in lowamplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps)
much like awake-aroused state.
A person during this sleep exhibits
Rapid Eye Movements (REM)
and reports vivid dreams.
Stages in a Typical
Night’s Sleep
Awake
Sleep
stages
1
2
3
REM
4
0
1
2
3
4
Hours of sleep
5
6
7
Stages in a Typical
Night’s Sleep
Minutes
of
Stage 4
and
REM
Decreasing
Stage 4
25
20
15
Increasing
REM
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Hours of sleep
6
7
8
Sleep Deprivation
 Effects of Sleep
Loss
 fatigue
 impaired
concentration
 depressed immune
system
 greater
vulnerability to
accidents
Sleep Deprivation
Less sleep,
more accidents
Accident
frequency
More sleep,
fewer accidents
2,800
2,700
4,200
2,600
4000
2,500
3,800
2,400
3,600
Spring time change
(hour sleep loss)
Monday before time change
Fall time change
(hour sleep gained)
Monday after time change
Sleep Theories
1. Sleep Protects: Sleeping in the darkness when
predators loomed about kept our ancestors out
of harm’s way.
2. Sleep Helps us Recover: Sleep helps restore
and repair brain tissue.
3. Sleep Helps us Remember: Sleep restores and
rebuilds our fading memories.
4. Sleep may play a role in the growth process:
During sleep, the pituitary gland releases
growth hormone. Older people release less of
this hormone and sleep less.
Sleep Disorders
 Insomnia
 persistent problems in falling or staying
asleep
 Narcolepsy
 uncontrollable sleep attacks
 Sleep Apnea
 temporary cessation of breathing
 momentary reawakenings
Sleep Disorders
Children are most prone to:



Night terrors: The sudden arousal from sleep
with intense fear accompanied by
physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate,
perspiration) which occur during Stage 4
sleep.
Sleepwalking: A Stage 4 disorder which is
usually harmless and unrecalled the next day.
Sleeptalking: A condition that runs in families,
like sleepwalking.
Night Terrors and
Nightmares
 Night Terrors
Sleep
stages
Awake
1
2
3
REM
4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Hours of sleep
7
 occur within 2 or
3 hours of falling
asleep, usually
during Stage 4
 high arousal-appearance of
being terrified
Dreams: Freud
 Dreams
 sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts
passing through a sleeping person’s mind
 hallucinatory imagery
 discontinuities
 incongruities
 delusional acceptance of the content
 difficulties remembering
Dreams: Freud
 Sigmund Freud--The Interpretation of
Dreams (1900)
 wish fulfillment
 discharge otherwise unacceptable
feelings
 Manifest Content
 remembered story line
 Latent Content
 underlying meaning
Dreams
 As Information Processing
 helps facilitate memories
 REM Rebound
 REM sleep increases following REM
sleep deprivation
What We Dream
Manifest Content: A Freudian term meaning
the story line of dreams.
1. Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams
have negative emotional content.
2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about
failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or
struck with misfortune.
3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking, sexual
dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in
10; and in women 1 in 30.
27
Why We Dream—dream theories
1. Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested
that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to
discharge unacceptable feelings. The dream’s
manifest (apparent) content may also have
symbolic meanings (latent content) that signify
our unacceptable feelings.
2. Information Processing: Dreams may help sift,
sort, and fix a day’s experiences in our
memories.
28
Why We Dream
3. Physiological
Function: Dreams
provide the sleeping
brain with periodic
stimulation to
develop and preserve
neural pathways.
Neural networks of
newborns are quickly
developing; therefore,
they need more sleep.
29
Why We Dream – dream theories
4. Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the
brain engages in a lot of random neural
activity. Dreams make sense of this activity.
5. Cognitive Development: Some researchers
argue that we dream as a part of brain
maturation and cognitive development.
All dream researchers believe we need REM sleep. When
deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep,
we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound.
30
Dream Theories
Summary
Sleep Across the
Lifespan
Hypnosis
 Hypnosis
 a social interaction in which one person
(the hypnotist) suggests to another (the
subject) that certain perceptions,
feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will
spontaneously occur
 Posthypnotic Amnesia
 supposed inability to recall what one
experienced during hypnosis
 induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion
Facts and Falsehood
Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power
resides in the subject’s openness to suggestion.
Can anyone experience hypnosis?
Yes, to some extent.
Can hypnosis enhance recall of
forgotten events?
No.
Facts and Falsehood
Can hypnosis force people to act
against their will?
No.
Can hypnosis be therapeutic?
Yes. Self-suggestion
can heal too.
Can hypnosis alleviate pain?
Yes. Lamaze can
do that too.
Hypnosis
 Unhypnotized
persons can
also do this
Hypnosis
 Orne & Evans (1965)
 control group instructed to “pretend”
 unhypnotized subjects performed the same
acts as the hypnotized ones
 Posthypnotic Suggestion
 suggestion to be carried out after the subject
is no longer hypnotized
 used by some clinicians to control undesired
symptoms and behaviors
Hypnosis
 Dissociation
 a split in consciousness
 allows some thoughts and behaviors to
occur simultaneously with others
 Hidden Observer
 Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized
subject’s awareness of experiences, such as
pain, that go unreported during hypnosis
Explaining Hypnosis
Explaining Hypnosis
Divided consciousness is a term coined by
Ernest Hilgard to define a psychological state in
which one's consciousness is split into distinct
components, possibly during hypnosis.
Ernest Hilgard believed that hypnosis causes a split in
awareness and a vivid form of everyday mind splits.
Drawing themes from Pierre Janet, Hilgard viewed
hypnosis from this perspective as a willingness to divide
the main systems of consciousness into different sectors.
He argued that this split in consciousness can not only help
define the state of mind reached during hypnosis, but can
also help to define a vast range of psychological issues
such as multiple personality disorder.
Drugs and
Consciousness
 Psychoactive Drug
 a chemical substance that alters perceptions
and mood
 Physical Dependence
 physiological need for a drug
 marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
 Psychological Dependence
 a psychological need to use a drug
 for example, to relieve negative emotions
Dependence and
Addiction
Big
effect
Drug
effect
 Tolerance
 diminishing effect
with regular use
Response to
first exposure
 Withdrawal
After repeated
exposure, more
drug is needed
to produce
same effect
Little
effect
Small
Large
Drug dose
 discomfort and
distress that follow
discontinued use
Withdrawal & Dependence
1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug
(after addiction), users may experience the
undesirable effects of withdrawal.
2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a
feeling of physical pain, intense cravings
(physical dependence), and negative emotions
(psychological dependence).
Misconceptions About Addiction
Addiction is a craving for a chemical substance,
despite its adverse consequences (physical &
psychological).
1. Addictive drugs quickly corrupt.
2. Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily.
3. Addiction is no different than repetitive
pleasure-seeking behaviors.
Psychoactive Drugs
 Depressants
 drugs that reduce neural activity
 slow body functions
 alcohol, barbiturates, opiates
 Stimulants
 drugs that excite neural activity
 speed up body functions
 caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine
Depressants
1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and
memory…and increases aggressiveness while
reducing self awareness.
Ray Ng/ Time & Life Pictures/ Getty Images
Daniel Hommer, NIAAA, NIH, HHS
Drinking and Driving
Depressants
2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of
the central nervous system, reducing anxiety
but impairing memory and judgment.
Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some
examples. Often prescribed to induce sleep or
reduce anxiety, barbiturates taken with alcohol
can be lethal.
Depressants
http://opioids.com/timeline
3. Opiates: Opium and its
derivatives (morphine
and heroin) depress
neural activity,
temporarily lessening
pain and anxiety. They
are highly addictive.
Includes narcotics,
such as codeine and
morphine, prescribed
for pain. (Laudanum)
Stimulants are drugs that excite neural activity and
speed up body functions. Examples of stimulants are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Caffeine
Nicotine
Cocaine
Ecstasy – mild hallucinogen
Amphetamines – drugs that stimulate neural
activity, causing speeded up body functions and
associated energy and mood changes.
6. Methamphetamines – a powerfully addictive
drug that stimulates the CNS, with speeded-up
body functions and associated energy and mood
changes; over time, reduces baseline dopamine
Caffeine & Nicotine
Caffeine and nicotine increase heart and
breathing rates and other autonomic functions to
provide energy.
http://office.microsoft.com/clipart
http://www.tech-res-intl.com
Why Do People Smoke?
1. People smoke because it is socially rewarding.
2. Smoking is also a result of genetic factors.
Russel Einhorn/ The Gamma Liason Network
Why Do People Smoke?
3.
Nicotine takes away
unpleasant cravings
(negative
reinforcement) by
triggering
epinephrine,
norepinephrine,
dopamine, and
endorphins.
4. Nicotine itself is
rewarding (positive
reinforcement).
Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash.
Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked. Other forms of
cocaine can be sniffed or injected.
http://www.ohsinc.com
Ecstasy
Ecstasy or
Methylenedioxymethamphet
amine (MDMA) is a
stimulant and mild
hallucinogen. It produces a
euphoric high and can
damage serotonin-producing
neurons, which results in a
permanent deflation of mood
and impairment of memory.
Psychoactive Drugs
 Hallucinogens
 psychedelic (mind-manifesting)
drugs that distort perceptions
and evoke sensory images in
the absence of sensory input
 LSD
Hallucinogens
Hemp Plant
http://static.howstuffworks.com
1. LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide) powerful
hallucinogenic drug that is also known as
acid.
2. THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol): is the
major active ingredient in marijuana (hemp
plant) that triggers a variety of effects,
including mild hallucinations.
Psychoactive Drugs
 Barbiturates
 drugs that depress the
activity of the central nervous
system, reducing anxiety but
impairing memory and
judgement
Psychoactive Drugs
 Opiates
 opium and its derivatives
(morphine and heroin)
 opiates depress neural
activity, temporarily lessening
pain and anxiety
Psychoactive Drugs
 Amphetamines
 drugs that stimulate neural
activity, causing speeded-up
body functions and associated
energy and mood changes
Cocaine Euphoria and
Crash
Psychoactive Drugs
 Ecstasy (MDMA)
 synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen
 both short-term and long-term health risks
 LSD
 lysergic acid diethylamide
 a powerful hallucinogenic drug
 also known as acid
 THC
 the major active ingredient in marijuana
 triggers a variety of effects, including mild
hallucinations
Psychoactive Drugs
Trends in Drug Use
80%
High school
seniors
reporting
drug use
70
60
50
Alcohol
40
Marijuana/
hashish
30
20
Cocaine
10
0
1975 ‘77 ‘79
‘81
‘83
‘85
‘87 ‘89
Year
‘91 ‘93
‘95
‘97 ‘99
Perceived Marijuana
Risk
100%
Percent
of
twelfth
graders
Perceived “great risk of
harm” in marijuana use
90
80
70
60
50
40
Used marijuana
30
20
10
0
‘75
‘77
‘79 ‘81 ‘83
‘85
‘87 ‘89 ‘91 ‘93
Year
‘95 ‘97 ‘99
Near-Death Experiences
 Near-Death
Experience
 an altered state of
consciousness
reported after a close
brush with death
 often similar to druginduced
hallucinations
Near-Death Experiences
 Dualism
 the presumption that mind and
body are two distinct entities that
interact
 Monism
 the presumption that mind and
body are different aspects of the
same thing