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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 7 States of Consciousness James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Waking Consciousness Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our environments. Conscious awareness enables us to exert voluntary control and to communicate our mental states to others. Forms of Consciousness AP Photo/ Ricardo Mazalan Stuart Franklin/ Magnum Photos Christine Brune Bill Ling/ Digital Vision/ Getty Images Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is an awareness of ourselves and our environment. States of Consciousness Waking Consciousness Hypnosis Selective Attention Facts and Falsehoods Levels of Information Processing Explaining the Hypnotized State Sleep and Dreams Drugs and Consciousness Biological Rhythms and Sleep Dependence and Addiction Why Do We Sleep? Psychoactive Drugs Sleep Disorders Influences on Drug Use Dreams 4 Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms periodic physiological fluctuations Annual Cycles--Geese migrate, grizzly bears hibernate, humans experience variations in appetite, sleep, and mood. Twenty-eight-day cycles—female menstrual cycle Premenstrual Syndrome 3 Recalled mood is worse than earlier reported Negative mood score 2 1 Premenstrual Actual Menstrual Intermenstrual Menstrual phase Recalled mood Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms periodic physiological fluctuations Circadian Rhythm the biological clock regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle, such as of wakefulness and body temperature Biological Rhythms and Sleep Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it can be altered by artificial light. Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease (morning) melatonin from the pineal gland and increase (evening) it at nightfall. Sleep and Dreams REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep recurring sleep stage vivid dreams “paradoxical sleep” muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active Sleep periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. Sleep and Dreams Measuring sleep activity Brain Waves and Sleep Stages Alpha Waves slow waves of a relaxed, awake brain Delta Waves large, slow waves of deep sleep Hallucinations false sensory experiences (typical of stage 1 sleep) Awake but Relaxed When an individual closes his eyes but remains awake, his brain activity slows down to a large amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14 cps). A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain activity. Sleep Stages 1-2 During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity. Theta Waves Sleep Stages 3-4 During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activity slows down. There are large-amplitude, slow delta waves (1.5-4 cps). Stage 5: REM Sleep After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in lowamplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps) much like awake-aroused state. A person during this sleep exhibits Rapid Eye Movements (REM) and reports vivid dreams. Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep Awake Sleep stages 1 2 3 REM 4 0 1 2 3 4 Hours of sleep 5 6 7 Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep Minutes of Stage 4 and REM Decreasing Stage 4 25 20 15 Increasing REM 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Hours of sleep 6 7 8 Sleep Deprivation Effects of Sleep Loss fatigue impaired concentration depressed immune system greater vulnerability to accidents Sleep Deprivation Less sleep, more accidents Accident frequency More sleep, fewer accidents 2,800 2,700 4,200 2,600 4000 2,500 3,800 2,400 3,600 Spring time change (hour sleep loss) Monday before time change Fall time change (hour sleep gained) Monday after time change Sleep Theories 1. Sleep Protects: Sleeping in the darkness when predators loomed about kept our ancestors out of harm’s way. 2. Sleep Helps us Recover: Sleep helps restore and repair brain tissue. 3. Sleep Helps us Remember: Sleep restores and rebuilds our fading memories. 4. Sleep may play a role in the growth process: During sleep, the pituitary gland releases growth hormone. Older people release less of this hormone and sleep less. Sleep Disorders Insomnia persistent problems in falling or staying asleep Narcolepsy uncontrollable sleep attacks Sleep Apnea temporary cessation of breathing momentary reawakenings Sleep Disorders Children are most prone to: Night terrors: The sudden arousal from sleep with intense fear accompanied by physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate, perspiration) which occur during Stage 4 sleep. Sleepwalking: A Stage 4 disorder which is usually harmless and unrecalled the next day. Sleeptalking: A condition that runs in families, like sleepwalking. Night Terrors and Nightmares Night Terrors Sleep stages Awake 1 2 3 REM 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hours of sleep 7 occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4 high arousal-appearance of being terrified Dreams: Freud Dreams sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind hallucinatory imagery discontinuities incongruities delusional acceptance of the content difficulties remembering Dreams: Freud Sigmund Freud--The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) wish fulfillment discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings Manifest Content remembered story line Latent Content underlying meaning Dreams As Information Processing helps facilitate memories REM Rebound REM sleep increases following REM sleep deprivation What We Dream Manifest Content: A Freudian term meaning the story line of dreams. 1. Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams have negative emotional content. 2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or struck with misfortune. 3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking, sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30. 27 Why We Dream—dream theories 1. Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to discharge unacceptable feelings. The dream’s manifest (apparent) content may also have symbolic meanings (latent content) that signify our unacceptable feelings. 2. Information Processing: Dreams may help sift, sort, and fix a day’s experiences in our memories. 28 Why We Dream 3. Physiological Function: Dreams provide the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation to develop and preserve neural pathways. Neural networks of newborns are quickly developing; therefore, they need more sleep. 29 Why We Dream – dream theories 4. Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the brain engages in a lot of random neural activity. Dreams make sense of this activity. 5. Cognitive Development: Some researchers argue that we dream as a part of brain maturation and cognitive development. All dream researchers believe we need REM sleep. When deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep, we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound. 30 Dream Theories Summary Sleep Across the Lifespan Hypnosis Hypnosis a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur Posthypnotic Amnesia supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion Facts and Falsehood Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power resides in the subject’s openness to suggestion. Can anyone experience hypnosis? Yes, to some extent. Can hypnosis enhance recall of forgotten events? No. Facts and Falsehood Can hypnosis force people to act against their will? No. Can hypnosis be therapeutic? Yes. Self-suggestion can heal too. Can hypnosis alleviate pain? Yes. Lamaze can do that too. Hypnosis Unhypnotized persons can also do this Hypnosis Orne & Evans (1965) control group instructed to “pretend” unhypnotized subjects performed the same acts as the hypnotized ones Posthypnotic Suggestion suggestion to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized used by some clinicians to control undesired symptoms and behaviors Hypnosis Dissociation a split in consciousness allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others Hidden Observer Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis Explaining Hypnosis Explaining Hypnosis Divided consciousness is a term coined by Ernest Hilgard to define a psychological state in which one's consciousness is split into distinct components, possibly during hypnosis. Ernest Hilgard believed that hypnosis causes a split in awareness and a vivid form of everyday mind splits. Drawing themes from Pierre Janet, Hilgard viewed hypnosis from this perspective as a willingness to divide the main systems of consciousness into different sectors. He argued that this split in consciousness can not only help define the state of mind reached during hypnosis, but can also help to define a vast range of psychological issues such as multiple personality disorder. Drugs and Consciousness Psychoactive Drug a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood Physical Dependence physiological need for a drug marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms Psychological Dependence a psychological need to use a drug for example, to relieve negative emotions Dependence and Addiction Big effect Drug effect Tolerance diminishing effect with regular use Response to first exposure Withdrawal After repeated exposure, more drug is needed to produce same effect Little effect Small Large Drug dose discomfort and distress that follow discontinued use Withdrawal & Dependence 1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug (after addiction), users may experience the undesirable effects of withdrawal. 2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense cravings (physical dependence), and negative emotions (psychological dependence). Misconceptions About Addiction Addiction is a craving for a chemical substance, despite its adverse consequences (physical & psychological). 1. Addictive drugs quickly corrupt. 2. Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily. 3. Addiction is no different than repetitive pleasure-seeking behaviors. Psychoactive Drugs Depressants drugs that reduce neural activity slow body functions alcohol, barbiturates, opiates Stimulants drugs that excite neural activity speed up body functions caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine Depressants 1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and memory…and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness. Ray Ng/ Time & Life Pictures/ Getty Images Daniel Hommer, NIAAA, NIH, HHS Drinking and Driving Depressants 2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some examples. Often prescribed to induce sleep or reduce anxiety, barbiturates taken with alcohol can be lethal. Depressants http://opioids.com/timeline 3. Opiates: Opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin) depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. They are highly addictive. Includes narcotics, such as codeine and morphine, prescribed for pain. (Laudanum) Stimulants are drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Examples of stimulants are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Caffeine Nicotine Cocaine Ecstasy – mild hallucinogen Amphetamines – drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. 6. Methamphetamines – a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the CNS, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, reduces baseline dopamine Caffeine & Nicotine Caffeine and nicotine increase heart and breathing rates and other autonomic functions to provide energy. http://office.microsoft.com/clipart http://www.tech-res-intl.com Why Do People Smoke? 1. People smoke because it is socially rewarding. 2. Smoking is also a result of genetic factors. Russel Einhorn/ The Gamma Liason Network Why Do People Smoke? 3. Nicotine takes away unpleasant cravings (negative reinforcement) by triggering epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and endorphins. 4. Nicotine itself is rewarding (positive reinforcement). Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash. Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked. Other forms of cocaine can be sniffed or injected. http://www.ohsinc.com Ecstasy Ecstasy or Methylenedioxymethamphet amine (MDMA) is a stimulant and mild hallucinogen. It produces a euphoric high and can damage serotonin-producing neurons, which results in a permanent deflation of mood and impairment of memory. Psychoactive Drugs Hallucinogens psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input LSD Hallucinogens Hemp Plant http://static.howstuffworks.com 1. LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide) powerful hallucinogenic drug that is also known as acid. 2. THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol): is the major active ingredient in marijuana (hemp plant) that triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. Psychoactive Drugs Barbiturates drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement Psychoactive Drugs Opiates opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin) opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety Psychoactive Drugs Amphetamines drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes Cocaine Euphoria and Crash Psychoactive Drugs Ecstasy (MDMA) synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen both short-term and long-term health risks LSD lysergic acid diethylamide a powerful hallucinogenic drug also known as acid THC the major active ingredient in marijuana triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations Psychoactive Drugs Trends in Drug Use 80% High school seniors reporting drug use 70 60 50 Alcohol 40 Marijuana/ hashish 30 20 Cocaine 10 0 1975 ‘77 ‘79 ‘81 ‘83 ‘85 ‘87 ‘89 Year ‘91 ‘93 ‘95 ‘97 ‘99 Perceived Marijuana Risk 100% Percent of twelfth graders Perceived “great risk of harm” in marijuana use 90 80 70 60 50 40 Used marijuana 30 20 10 0 ‘75 ‘77 ‘79 ‘81 ‘83 ‘85 ‘87 ‘89 ‘91 ‘93 Year ‘95 ‘97 ‘99 Near-Death Experiences Near-Death Experience an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death often similar to druginduced hallucinations Near-Death Experiences Dualism the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact Monism the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing