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The Nervous System Epilepsy By Diane Bui, Kim Lai, and Cade Wong An Overview of the Nervous System ● Nervous system : the part of an animal’s body that coordinates its voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body - consists of circuits of neurons and supporting cells - communication within and throughout the body - two main parts: CNS and PNS Human Nervous System (above) What is Epilepsy? (General Overview) ● Epilepsy : a central nervous system disorder (neurological disorder) in which nerve cell activity (electrical rhythms) in the brain is disturbed, causing seizures or periods of unusual behavior ● in more than half the patients with epilepsy, the cause is still unknown ● nerve cells in brain send out wrong signals → seizures CNS and PNS The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and ganglia outside the CNS. The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The Vertebrate Nervous System Neurons and Nerves ● Nerves : a ropelike bundle of neuron fibers (axons) tightly wrapped in connective tissue - organizes and transmits information to various parts of body - send/receive signals from neurons ● Neurons : electrically excitable cells that process and transmit information through chemical and electrical signals - electrical synaptic signaling - conducts nerve impulses ● Bundles of neurons make up nerves ● Larger groups of neurons make up the brain and spinal cord ● Nerves are found in the PNS, while neurons are found in the brain, spinal cord, and the peripheral nerves Central Nervous System two main organs of CNS: - brain and spinal cord ● process center for the nervous system ● controls most functions of the body and mind ● responsible for integrating sensory information ● receives and sends information to the peripheral nervous system The Brain ● control center of the body; major functional unit ● makes up the largest portion of CNS ● consists of three main components: ○ Forebrain ○ Midbrain/Brainstem ○ Hindbrain Forebrain ● receives and processes sensory information ● controls motor functions ● thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language contains the cerebrum (largest part of brain) and diencephalon Midbrain/Brainstem ● Midbrain contains only a portion of the brainstem ● connects the hindbrain and the forebrain ● involved in auditory & visual responses as well as motor functions Hindbrain includes pons, cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata ● maintains balance and coordination ● conduction of sensory information ● medulla oblongata controls autonomic functions Components Of The Brain Two Types of Tissue Grey Matter White Matter Grey Matter ● Processes info in the brain ● Composed of neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated axons ● Directs sensory motor stimuli to the nerve cells Glial cells and capillaries give the tissue the greyish pink color Glial Cells ● Transports nutrients and energy to the neurons ● Influences efficiency of function and communication White Matter ● The inner layer of the brain cortex ● Axons contain a myelin sheath which gives it the white color ● ● Myelin acts as an insulator and affects the speed of the nerve signalling Spinal Cord ● a cylindrical shaped bundle of nerve fibers that is connected to the brain; connects brain & PNS ● extends from the neck to the lower back ● spinal cord nerves transmit info from body organs and external stimuli to the brain and send information from the brain to other areas of the body Spinal Cord ● 3 major functions: - passage for motor information - passage for sensory information - center for coordinating certain reflexes Spinal Cord ● Ascending nerve tracts carry sensory information from the body to the brain - travels up the spinal cord ● Descending nerve tracts carry motor information from the brain to the rest of the body Ex: muscle movements - travels down the spinal cord Reflexes ● Reflexes are associated with the central and peripheral nervous systems ● A rapid, involuntary, and instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus ● Built-in safety mechanisms that help keep people safe Reflexes include coughing, sneezing, and blinking Primitive reflexes are ones infants are born with but later outgrow Cerebrospinal Fluid ● Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) is a colorless body fluid that is found in the brain and spinal cord ● Is produced in the choroid plexus of the brain ● It is used as a cushion for the brain’s cortex Functions of CSF ● Buoyancy - allows the brain to maintain its density without cutting off blood supply and killing neurons - the brain is immersed in fluid, reducing the net weight - pressure at the base of brain is reduced ● Protection - protects brain tissue from any jolts or hits to the head - cushions a blow to the head and lessens impact Function of CSF ● Prevention of Ischemia - decrease of the CSF in the limited space of the skull decreases intracranial pressure ● An ischemic stroke occurs when an artery in the brain becomes blocked. Clearing waste - rinses the metabolic waste from the central nervous system - the one-way flow from the CSF to the blood takes potentially harmful metabolites, drugs and other substances away from the brain Neurons Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system and contain nerve processes which are "fingerlike" projections that extend from the nerve cell body. SYNAPSE - contains a small gap separating neurons - permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell DENDRITES - structures that extend away from cell body - receives signals from other neurons and carry them towards the cell body CELL BODY - control center - recycling and manufacturing plant AXON - carry signals away from the cell body to other neurons AXON TERMINAL - lies at the end of the axon - contain neurotransmitters, which are the chemical medium through which signals flow from one neuron to the next at chemical synapses How Neurons Communicate ● ● ● communicate through an electrochemical process electrical process: Sensory receptors interact with stimuli such as light, sound, temperature, and pain which is transformed into a code that is carried to the brain by a chain of neurons. Then systems of neurons in the brain interpret this information. The information is carried along axons and dendrites because of changes in electrical properties which we call action potential. An action potential is initiated when a messenger attaches itself to a receptor. chemical process: When that occurs, an electrical signal is triggered to be generated through the neuron. Once the signal reaches the end of an axon, which is at the end of a neuron, a neurotransmitter is released and the process repeats. Example 3. 2. 1. Sensors detect a sudden stretch in the quadriceps. The reflex is initiated artificially by tapping the tendon connected to the quadriceps muscle. Sensory neurons convey the information to the spinal cord. 4. In response to signals from the sensory neurons, motor neurons convey signals to the quadriceps, causing it to contract and jerking the lower leg forward. 5. Sensory neurons also communicate with interneurons in the spinal cord. 6. The interneurons inhibit motor neurons that lead to the hamstring muscle. This inhibition prevents contraction of the hamstring, which would resist the action of the quadriceps. How Neurons Communicate Electrical signal along nerve cell triggers release of neurotransmitter Synaptic signaling : A nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, stimulating the target cell Neurotransmitter diffuses across synapse Target cell is stimulated Neurons 3 types of neurons: ● Motor - carry information from CNS to organs, glands, and muscles ● Sensory - send information to the CNS from internal organs or from external stimuli ● Interneuron - relay signals between motor and sensory neurons Peripheral Nervous System ● transmits information to and from the CNS and plays a large role in regulating an animal’s movement and internal environment ● connect the CNS to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and the extremities functional hierarchy of peripheral nervous system Sensory-Somatic Nervous System The sensory-somatic system consists of ● 12 pairs of cranial nerves and ● 31 pairs of spinal nerves The cranial nerves connect the brain with locations mostly in organs of the head and upper body. Ex: olfactory nerve - sense of smell The spinal nerves run between the spinal cord and parts of the body below the head. Autonomic Nervous System ● controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth and cardiac muscle ● also called the involuntary nervous system ● 3 divisions - sympathetic → (“fight-or-flight” response) - parasympathetic → (“rest and digest”) - enteric 3 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System Activation of the parasympathetic division generally causes opposite responses that promote calming and a return to selfmaintenance functions (“rest and digest”) Ex : Increased activity in the parasympathetic division lowers heart rate and enhances digestion Activation of the sympathetic division corresponds to arousal and energy generation (“fight-or-flight” response) Ex: heart beats fister, digestion is inhibited, etc. 3 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System The enteric division consists of networks of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder ● neurons of the enteric division control secretion ● normally regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions Epilepsy: The Basics ● new cases of epilepsy common in children and after the age of 55 ● common in those who have suffered brain trauma ● affects 50,000,000 people worldwide ● 30% diagnosed are children Epilepsy: Causes and Symptoms ● ⅔ of patients are diagnosed with an unknown cause ● severe head injury ● brain infection or disease ● stroke ● oxygen deprivation ● temporary confusion ● staring spells ● loss of consciousness ● psychic symptoms Epilepsy: types of seizures There are two types of epileptic seizures with different symptoms ● focal (partial) ● generalized Epilepsy: focal seizures ● these occur when there is abnormal activity in one area of the brain ● also known as partial seizures ● broken down into two subcategories with different symptoms ○ simple partial seizures ○ complex partial seizures Epilepsy: simple focal seizures ● don’t cause a loss of consciousness ● may alter emotions or modify the sensitivity of the senses ● can result in involuntary jerking of body parts ● can cause dizziness, tingling and sensitivity to flashing lights Epilepsy: complex focal seizures ● involves a change or loss of consciousness ● spelling spells may occur ● little or no response from environmental stimuli ● performance of repetitive movements such as hand rubbing, chewing, and walking in circles Epilepsy: Generalized seizures ● these occur when there is abnormal activity in all areas of the brain ● broken down into six subcategories with different symptoms ○ absence seizures ○ tonic-clonic seizures ○ tonic seizures ○ atonic seizures ○ clonic seizures ○ myoclonic seizures Epilepsy: Absence seizures ● known as petit mal seizures ● staring into space or subtle body movements ● may occur in clusters ● can cause brief loss of awareness Epilepsy: tonic-clonic seizures ● known as grand mal seizures ● can cause abrupt loss of consciousness ● body stiffening and shaking ● loss of bladder control ● biting of the tongue Epilepsy: tonic and atonic seizures Tonic seizures cause stiffening of muscles ● usually affect muscles in Atonic seizures back, legs, arms cause a loss of ● can cause a fall muscle control ● also known as drop seizures ● can cause a sudden collapse or fall Epilepsy: clonic and myoclonic seizures Clonic seizures are associated with repeated, jerking muscle movements ● usually affect the neck, face, arms Myoclonic seizures are sudden, brief jerks or twitches ● normally occur in the arms and legs Epilepsy: Cell Signaling Pathways A normal brain with healthy cell signaling pathways A epileptic brain with diseased brain areas that are darker. Has diseased cell signaling pathways Epilepsy: Cell Signaling Pathways Epilepsy: Prognosis ● no cure but can be controlled with the right drugs ● ketogenic diets ● avoiding alcohol & getting enough sleep ● surgery Anti-epileptic Drugs ● Prescribed to control seizures ● Enters the bloodstream ● Alters and reduces the excessive electrical activity ● Not fully understood Epilepsy: Current Research ● Each year NIH spends over $30 billion on research and but less than 1% is spent on epilepsy ● A genetic mutation found in the heart had been identified to cause severe and potentially deadly seizures ● CURE: addresses prevention, advancement of the search for the cure, elimination of treatment side effects Epilepsy Phenome/Genome Project ● Collects phenotypic and genomic information on patients with epilepsy ● To identify the underlying determinant for epilepsy ● Goal: to shape the future of clinical care of people with epilepsy Bibliography ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● "Cerebrospinal Fluid." 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Web. 07 Apr. 2015. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron>. https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/116115/flashcards/705927/jpg/0013lll.jpg http://vignette1.wikia.nocookie.net/4chanint/images/9/9d/1368490957121-1-.png/revision/latest?cb=20130517002923 http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301images/Brain_stem.jpg https://www.glenoaks.edu/facultystaff/FacultyWebSites/hartung/PublishingImages/Nervous/brainstem%20with%20cerebellum%20attached%20labeled.jpg "Epilepsy Pictures: Seizures, Symptoms, Tests, and Treatments." WebMD. WebMD, n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2015. <http://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/ss/slideshow-epilepsyoverview>. "Study Finds New Genetic Clues to Pediatric Seizure Disorders." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2015. <http://www.sciencedaily. com/releases/2015/04/150402132758.htm>. "Epilepsy." Symptoms and Causes. N.p., 22 Nov. 2014. 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