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PSYC550 Biological Bases of Behavior Research Methods and Ingestion Experimental Ablation • experimental ablation – The removal or destruction of a portion of the brain of a laboratory animal; presumably, the functions that can no longer be performed are the ones the region previously controlled. • excitotoxic lesion – A brain lesion produced by intracerebral injection of an excitatory amino acid, such as kainic acid. • 6-hydroxydopamine (6HD) – A chemical that is selectively taken up by axons and terminal buttons of noradrenergic or dopaminergic neurons and acts as a poison, damaging or killing them. Experimental Ablation • sham lesion – A placebo procedure that duplicates all of the step of producing a brain lesion except for the one that actually causes the brain damage. • stereotaxic surgery – Brain surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to position an electrode or cannula in a specified position of the brain. • bregma – The junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures of the skull; often used as a reference point for stereotaxic brain surgery. Experimental Ablation • stereotaxic atlas – A collection of drawings of sections of the brain of a particular animal with measurements that provide coordinates for stereotaxic surgery. • sterotaxic apparatus – A device that permits a surgeon to position an electrode or cannula into a specific part of the brain. Experimental Ablation • fixative – A chemical such as formalin; used to prepare and preserve body tissue. • formalin – The aqueous solution of formaldehyde gas; the most commonly used tissue fixative. • perfusion – The process by which an animal’s blood is replaced by fluid such as a saline solution or fixative in preparing the brain for histological examination. • microtome – An instrument that produces very thin slices of tissues. 1. This one? 2. This one? 3. How about this one? 4. 3. 4. Or this one? e? O rt hi s on tt hi s ab ou ow on e? ? on e is Th Th is on e ? 25% 25% 25% 25% H 1. Which of these is an MRI? 2. 10 Microscopy • transmission electron microscope – A microscope that passes a focused beam of electrons through thin slices of tissues to reveal extremely small details. • scanning electron microscope – A microscope that provides three-dimensional information about the shape of the surface of a small object by scanning the object with a thin beam of electrons. • confocal laser scanning microscope – A microscope that provides high-resolution images of various depths of thick tissue that contains fluorescent molecule by scanning the tissue with light from a laser beam. Visualizing • computerized tomography (CT) – The use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a slice through the body. • magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – A technique whereby the interior of the body can be accurately imaged; involves the interaction between radio waves and a strong magnetic field. Computed Tomography • CT is readily available, fast, and inexpensive – Great for identifying hemotomas • Iodine contrast medium can be used to enhance visualization of vasculature (hyperdense) to detect – Neoplasms – Inflammation Contrast Agent Magnetic Resonance Imaging • Expose protons in hydrogen atoms in body to a large magnet • Aligns protons and essentially turns the body into a resonating magnet • Forces the protons to spin at an angle relative to the magnetic field, at varying frequencies • Produces a radio frequency that can be read and interpreted. MRI (T2 on Right) • FOS Recording and Stimulating Neural Activity – A protein produced in the nucleus of a neuron in response to synaptic stimulation. • positron emission tomography (PET) – The use of a device that reveals the localization of a radioactive tracer in a living brain. Visualizing and Siphoning • functional MRI (fMRI) – A modification of the MRI procedure that permits the measurement of regional metabolism in the brain. • microdialysis – A procedure for analyzing chemicals present in the interstitial fluid though a small piece of tubing made of a semipermeable membrane that is implanted in the brain. Genetic Methods • • • • Twin Studies Adoption Studies Targeted Mutations Antisense Oligonucleotides Genetic Methods • Targeted mutation – A mutated gene (also called a “knockout gene”) produced in the laboratory and inserted into the chromosomes of mice; fails to produce a functional protein. • Antisense Oligonucleotides – A mutated portion of an RNA strand is inserted and fails to produce functional protein Ingestion! Insert Segue Here Physiological Regulatory Mechanisms • homeostasis – The process by which the body’s substances and characteristics (such as temperature and glucose level) are maintained at the optimal level. • ingestive behavior – Eating or drinking. • system variable – A variable that is controlled by a regulatory mechanism, for example, temperature in a heating system. • set point – The optimal value of the system variable in a regulatory mechanism. Drinking • intracellular fluid – The fluid contained within cells. • extracellular fluid – All body fluids outside cells; interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid. • intravascular fluid – The fluid found within the blood vessels. • interstitial fluid – The fluid that bathes the cells, filling the space between the cells of the body (the “interstices”). Drinking • osmometric thirst – Thirst produced by an increase in the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid relative to the intracellular fluid, thus producing cellular dehydration. • osmoreceptor – A neuron that detects changes in the solute concentration of the interstitial fluid that surrounds it. Drinking • OVLT (organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis) – A circumventricular organ located anterior to the anteroventral portion of the third ventricle, served by fenestrated capillaries and thus lacks a blood-brain barrier. • subfornical organ (SFO) – A small organ located in the confluence of the lateral ventricles, attached to the underside of the fornix; contains neurons that detect the presence of angiotensin in the blood and excite neural circuits that initiate drinking. You get thirsty when you lose a lot of blood. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree ag re e gr ee Di s is a ly St ro ng A gr ee D ly Ag re e 25% 25% 25% 25% St ro ng 1. 2. 3. 4. 10 Drinking • volumetric thirst – Thirst produced by hypovolemia. • renin – A hormone secreted by the kidneys that causes the conversion of angiotensinogen in the blood into angiotensin. • angiotensin – A peptide hormone that constricts blood vessels, causes the retention of sodium and water, and produces thirst and a salt appetite. Drinking • nucleus of the solitary tract – A nucleus of the medulla that receives information from the visceral organs and from the gustatory system. • medial preoptic nucleus – A small nucleus situated around the decussation of the anterior commissure; plays a role in thirst stimulated by angiotensin. A “starvation diet” can make you gain weight. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree ag re e gr ee Di s is a ly St ro ng A gr ee D ly Ag re e 25% 25% 25% 25% St ro ng 1. 2. 3. 4. 10 Eating at the Set Point • Glucostatic Theory • Lipostatic Theory • “Set Points” – Mutable by behavior Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism • fasting phase – A phase of metabolism during which nutrients are not available from the digestive system; glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids are derived from glycogen, protein, and adipose tissue during this phase. • absorptive phase – The phase of metabolism during which nutrients are absorbed from the digestive system; glucose and amino acids constitute the principal source of energy for cells during this phase, and excess nutrients are stored in adipose tissue in the form of triglycerides. What Starts a Meal? • ghrelin – A peptide hormone released by the stomach that increases eating; also produced by neurons in the brain. • glucoprivation – A dramatic fall in the level of glucose available to cells, can be caused by a fall in the blood level of glucose or by drugs that inhibit glucose metabolism. • lipoprivation – A dramatic fall in the level of fatty acids available to cells; usually caused by drugs that inhibit fatty acid metabolism. Brain Mechanisms • arcuate nucleus – A nucleus in the base of the hypothalamus that controls secretions of the anterior pituitary gland; contains NPYsecreting neurons involved in feeding and control of metabolism. • paraventricular nucleus (PVN) – A nucleus of the hypothalamus located adjacent to the dorsal third ventricle; contains neurons involved in control of the autonomic nervous system and the posterior pituitary gland. Which of the following best describes volumetric thirst? s at ch a ve l le u w CS F W he n yo th e he n W m ... i.. . .. id . is e th er he n W co ns lf lu .. iti a in te rs t 4. th e 3. 25% 25% 25% 25% he n 2. When the interstitial fluid is significantly different from the intracellular fluid When there is considerable fluid loss When the CSF levels in the ventromedial hypothalamus raise significantly When you watch a movie in which there is a lot of sand, but no water W 1. 10 Which of the following imaging techniques makes use of x-rays? 1. Computerized Tomography 2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 3. Positron Emission Tomography 4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging ... M ag ne tic ... al tio n nc Fu si tr on Em R Po tic ag ne is s es on To d M te riz e om pu C io n an m o. .. c. .. 25% 25% 25% 25% 10