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School Neuropsychology Post-Graduate Certification Program
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School-Neuropsychology
Post-Graduate
Certification Program
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School Neuropsychology Post-Graduate Certification Program
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
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School Neuropsychology Post-Graduate Certification Program
The largest portion of
the brain is the
cerebrum. It consists of
two hemispheres that
are connected together
at the corpus callosum.
Corpus callosum
The cerebrum is often
divided into five lobes
that are responsible for
different brain
functions.
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Neocortex
The cerebrum’s surface—the
neocortex—is convoluted into
hundreds of folds.
The neocortex is where all the
higher brain functions take
place.
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•  The cerebral cortex is a thin layer of cells about
1.5 to 4 mm thick.
•  The cortex provides the connections and
pathways for the highest cognitive functions,
such as language and abstract thinking.
•  The cerebral cortex contains about 25 billion
neurons, more than 62,000 miles of axons, and
300,000,000,000,000 synapses.
Neocortex layer
The thin layer of
the neocortex is
dense with
neurons.
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Limbic Lobe
Frontal Lobe
Parietal Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Occipital Lobe
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•  Divided into two basic systems:
–  Peripheral nervous system - connects the CNS to
the rest of the body
•  Spinal nerves
•  Cranial nerves
•  Peripheral nerves
–  Central nervous system
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•  12 sets within the brainstem
–  Convey sensory information from sensory systems
of head
–  Control special movements of head (movements of
eyes and tongue)
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I.  Olfactory nerve
II.  Optic nerve
III.  Oculomotor nerve
IV.  Trochlear nerve
V.  Trigeminal nerve
VI.  Abducens nerve
VII.  Facial nerve
VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerve
IX.  Glossopharyngeal nerve
X.  Vagus nerve
XI.  Accessory nerve
XII.  Hypoglossal nerve
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•  Can't remember the names of the cranial
nerves? Here is a handy-dandy mnemonic for
you:
On Old Olympus Towering Top A Famous Vocal
German Viewed Some Hops.
•  The capital letters stand for:
–  olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal,
abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear,
glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal accessory,
hypoglossal.
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•  Large cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
•  Reside in various regions of the brain.
•  The fourth ventricle (aqueduct of Sylvius)
resides in the brain stem at the level of the pons
and the medulla.
•  The third ventricle is located in the diencephalon
(between brains).
•  Enlargement of these ventricles can be used for
diagnosing tumor or disease processes including:
hydrocephalus, encephalitis, and meningitis.
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•  The ventricles are a complex series of spaces
and tunnels through the center of the brain.
•  The ventricles secrete cerebrospinal fluid,
which suspends the brain in the skull.
•  The ventricles also provide a route for
chemical messengers that are widely
distributed through the central nervous
system.
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•  Cerebrospinal fluid is a
colorless liquid that bathes
the brain and spine.
•  It is formed within the
ventricles of the brain, and
it circulates throughout the
central nervous system.
•  Cerebrospinal fluid fills the
ventricles and meninges,
allowing the brain to “float”
within the skull.
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•  Myelencephalon
•  Metencephalon
•  Mesencephalon
•  Diencephalon
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•  The lower extension of the brain where it
connects to the spinal cord. Neurological
functions located in the brainstem include
those necessary for survival (breathing,
digestion, heart rate, blood pressure) and for
arousal (being awake and alert).
•  Most of the cranial nerves come from the
brainstem. The brainstem is the pathway for
all fiber tracts passing up and down from
peripheral nerves and spinal cord to the
highest parts of the brain.
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Front
Rear
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Midbrain
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
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•  Myelencephalon
•  Medulla Oblongata
•  Metencephalon
•  Mesencephalon
•  Diencephalon
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•  Medulla Oblongata or bulb - The medulla
oblongata functions primarily as a relay
station for the crossing of motor tracts
between the spinal cord and the brain.
•  It also contains the respiratory, vasomotor
and cardiac centers, as well as many
mechanisms for controlling reflex activities
such as coughing, gagging, swallowing and
vomiting.
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•  Significant injury to the medulla oblongata or
bulb generally results in death.
•  Damage to the lateral medullary structures
can result in sensory deficits.
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The medulla oblongata merges
seamlessly with the spinal cord
and creates the base of the
brainstem.
The medulla is primarily a control
center for vital involuntary
reflexes such as swallowing,
vomiting, sneezing, coughing, and
regulation of cardiovascular and
respiratory activity.
The medulla is also the origin of
many cranial nerves.
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•  A continuation of the spinal cord.
•  Contains nerve tracts similar to those found
in the spinal cord.
•  Groups of sensory and motor nuclei are
arranged in ascending (i.e., afferent - sensory
tracts) or descending (i.e., efferent - motor
tracts) cell columns.
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•  Projections of the major cranial nerves occur
at the level of the medulla including:
–  the hypoglossal (tongue)
–  the glossopharyngeal (pharynx and larynx)
–  the accessory (neck muscles)
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•  Neural crossing takes place at the medulla:
–  Sensory and motor tracts cross over into the
opposite side of the brain.
–  The somatosensory (touch, pressure, pain, and
temperature) and the motor systems are organized
in contralateral fashion, such that sensory
information and movement on the left side of the
body are primarily controlled by the right
hemisphere.
–  The visual and auditory systems are also crossed in
the medulla area.
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•  Reticular activating system (reticular
formation) – Mixture of fibers and cells in the
brainstem with fibers from the spinal cord
passing through the brainstem on their way to
the forebrain and fibers from the forebrain
passing through the brainstem on their way to
the spinal cord.
•  RAS comprises a major portion of the medulla
and extends into the midbrain area.
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•  The brainstem controls the
basic functions of life.
Damage to these areas of
the brain are usually fatal:
•  The pons plays a critical
role in respiration.
•  The medulla oblongata is
responsible for respiration
and cardiovascular
functions.
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
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•  RAS functions:
–  Control blood pressure
–  Blood volume in the organs
–  Heart rate
–  Regulate sleep and wakefulness
•  Because the RAS is directly or indirectly
connected to much of the CNS it can
modulate CNS activity.
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•  Brain stem lesions involving the RAS give rise
to sleep disturbances and to global disorders
of consciousness and responsivity such as
drowsiness, somnolence, stupor, or coma.
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•  The RAS, considered the arousal system,
plays an important role in maintaining
consciousness and attentional states for the
entire brain.
•  The RAS has been hypothesized as one of the
critical mechanisms involved in ADHD.
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•  Myelencephalon
•  Metencephalon
•  Pons
•  Cerebellum
•  Mesencephalon
•  Diencephalon
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•  Pons - The pons is a bridge-like structure
which links different parts of the brain and
serves as a relay station from the medulla to
the higher cortical structures of the brain. It
contains the respiratory center.
•  Major sensory and motor pathways move
through the pons.
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•  The pons is the rounded
brainstem region between
the midbrain and the medulla
oblongata. In fact, pons
means “bridge” in Latin.
•  The main function of the
pons is to connect the
cerebellum to the rest of the
brain and to modify the
respiratory output of the
medulla.
•  The pons is the origin of
several cranial nerves.
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•  The pons, in coordination with the cerebellum,
receives information concerning movements
from the motor cortex and helps modulate
movements.
•  Information from the visual cortex is also
received at the pontine level, which serves to
guide visually determined movements.
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Information from
the hypothalamus
and the limbic
system converge in
the pons and may
influence the
impact of emotional
and motivational
factors on motor
activity.
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•  A number of cranial nerves converge in the
pons:
–  Trigeminal nerve (swallowing and chewing)
–  Nervus facillis (moving facial muscles and affecting
hearing and equilibrium in the inner ear)
–  Abducens (the eye muscles)
•  Lesions of the pons may cause motor, sensory,
and coordination disorders.
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Also called the hindbrain.
Posterior to the brain stem.
Connects to the midbrain, pons, and medulla.
Receives sensory information about where the
limbs are in space and signals where muscles
should be positioned.
•  Receives information from the semicircular
canals (in the inner ear) concerning
orientation in space.
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The cerebellum is connected
to the brainstem, and is the
center for body movement
and balance.
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•  Involved in the unconscious adjustment of
muscles in the body for coordinated, smooth,
and complex motor activity.
•  Damage may result in ataxia which is a
problem of muscle coordination. This can
interfere with a person's ability to walk, talk,
eat, and to perform other self care tasks.
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•  Damage may result in:
–  dysarthria (slurred speech)
–  nystagmus (blurred vision and dizziness)
–  hypotonia (loss of muscle tone)
•  Tumors involving the cerebellum and the
fourth ventricle are the most common type of
brain tumor affecting young children (Cohen &
Duffner, 1994).
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•  Impairment of
equilibrium
•  Postural defects
•  Impairments of skilled
motor activity
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•  Highly organized neural pathways from both
lower and higher areas of the brain project
through the pons to the cerebellum.
•  The cerebellum projects through the
thalamus to the same cortical areas from
which it receives input, including frontal,
parietal, and superior temporal cortices.
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•  Through its connections with these cortical
areas and with subcortical sites, cerebellar
lesions can:
–  Disrupt abstract reasoning
–  Verbal fluency
–  Visuospatial abilities
–  Attention
–  Emotional modulation
–  Planning
–  Time judgment
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•  Cerebellar lesions can cause deficits in:
–  Linguistic processing
–  Set shifting
–  Working memory
–  Memory and learning, especially habit formation
–  Speed of information processing slows with
cerebellar lesions.
–  Personality changes and psychiatric disorders have
also been linked to cerebellar dysfunction.
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•  Myelencephalon
•  Metencephalon
•  Mesencephalon
•  Tectum
•  Tegmentum
•  Cerebral aqueduct
•  Diencephalon
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•  The most anterior region of the brain stem.
•  Its functioning may be a prerequisite for
conscious experience.
•  Serves a major relay function for sensorymotor fibers.
•  Two major divisions in the midbrain:
–  Tegmentum
–  Tectum
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•  Tectum (roof), above the cerebral aqueduct,
consists of two bilaterally symmetrical nuclei:
(Dorsal portion – sensory)
–  Superior colliculi
•  Receive projections from retina
•  Mediate visual related behaviors
–  Inferior colliculi
•  Receive projections from ear
•  Mediate auditory related behaviors.
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•  Tegmentum (floor), below the aqueduct and is
separated by the substantia nigra (Ventral
portion – motor)
–  Contains nuclei of some of the cranial nerves
–  Intermingled are motor nuclei
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•  Midbrain lesions have been associated with
specific movement disabilities such as certain
types of tremors, rigidity, and extraneous
movements of local muscle groups.
•  Even impaired memory retrieval has been
associated with damage to midbrain pathways
projecting to structures in the memory
system.
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•  A number of cranial nerves are located in the
midbrain:
–  Oculomotor nerve (moves the eyes laterally and
downward and regulates pupil size and lens shape)
–  Trigeminal nerve (major sensory nerve of the face)
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•  The superior region of the brain stem.
•  Contains major relay and integrative centers
for all sensory systems except smell.
•  This region of the brain is not clearly
demarcated but includes:
–  • thalamus
–  • hypothalamus
–  • pituitary
• internal capsule
• third ventricle
• optic nerve
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•  “Inner body or room”
–  Small, paired, somewhat oval
structure lying along the right and
left sides of the third ventricle.
–  Consists of a number of nuclei.
–  Relays for all sensory systems
except olfaction on their way to
cortex.
–  Communication relays for different
parts of the cortex.
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Prefrontal
cortex
•  Emotions are an
extremely complex brain
function. The emotional
core of the brain is the
limbic system. This is
where senses and
awareness are first
processed in the brain.
•  Mood and personality are
mediated through the
prefrontal cortex. This
part of the brain is the
center of higher cognitive
and emotional functions.
Limbic system
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The thalamus is called the
gateway to the cerebral cortex,
as nearly all sensory inputs pass
through it to the higher levels
of the brain.
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•  Body sensations may be degraded or lost with
damage to appropriate thalamic nuclei with an
associated impairment of the abilities to make
tactile discrimination and identification of
what is felt (tactile object agnosia).
•  Pain sensation typically remains intact or is
mildly diminished; however, with some kinds of
thalamic damage it may be heightened to an
excruciating degree.
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•  Other thalamic nuclei are relay pathways for
vision, hearing, and taste.
•  Other areas are relay nuclei for limbic
structures.
•  Motor nuclei receive input from the
cerebellum and the basal ganglia and project
to the motor association cortex.
•  As the termination site for the RAS, it plays
an important role in arousal and sleepproducing functions.
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•  Two types of memory impairments tend to
accompany thalamic lesions:
–  Learning is compromised (anterograde amnesia)
•  Possibly by defective encoding which makes
effective retrieval difficult if not impossible.
•  Possibly by a diminished capacity of learning
processes to free up readily for succeeding
exposures to new information (defective release
from proactive inhibition). A rapid loss of newly
acquired information may also occur.
–  Recall of past information is defective (retrograde
amnesia).
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•  Alterations of emotional capacity and
responsivity tend to accompany thalamic
damage:
–  Apathy
–  Loss of spontaneity and drive
–  Affective flattening
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•  Bilateral thalamic lesions:
–  Diminished behavior and emotions
•  Right thalamic lesions:
–  Transient manic episodes
•  Left thalamic lesions:
–  Strong emotional responses not nearly as those
associated with right lesions.
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•  “Lower room”
–  Composed of 22 small nuclei, fibers systems that
pass through it and the pituitary gland.
–  Comprises only 0.3% of brain’s weight.
–  Nearly all aspects of behavior pass through it
(feeding, sexual behavior, sleeping, temperature
regulation, emotional behavior, endocrine function
and movement).
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•  The hypothalamus sits under the
thalamus at the top of the
brainstem. Although the
hypothalamus is small, it controls
many critical bodily functions:
• Controls autonomic nervous system
• Center for emotional response and
behavior
• Regulates body temperature
• Regulates food intake
• Regulates water balance and thirst
• Controls sleep-wake cycles
• Controls endocrine system
The hypothalamus is
shaded blue. The
pituitary gland extends
from the hypothalamus.
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•  Lesions to hypothalamic nuclei can result in a
variety of symptoms including:
–  Obesity
–  Disorders of temperature control
–  Diminished drive states and responsivity.
–  Altered mood states
–  Damage to the mammillary bodies in the posterior
hypothalamus disrupts memory processing.
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•  Situated lateral to the thalamus
•  Contains fibers connecting the cortex to the
lower brain regions, including the brain stem
and spinal cord.
•  Major fibers comprise the internal capsule
and connect the frontal cortical regions to
the thalamus and to the pons.
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•  Converges in the diencephalon and forms the
optic chiasm.
•  Fibers from the optic nerve cross at the
chiasm and project to the lateral geniculate
body (occipital cortex) via the optic tract.
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Brain
Divisions
Telencephalon
(endbrain)
Brain
Structures
• Neocortex
• Basal ganglia
• Limbic system
• Olfactory bulbs
• Lateral
ventricles
Functional
Divisions
Forebrain
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•  Within each cerebral hemisphere, at its base,
are situated a number of nuclear masses
known as the basal ganglia.
•  Basal ganglia is composed of:
–  Caudate
–  Putamen
–  Globus pallidus
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School Neuropsychology Post-Graduate Certification Program
•  In some references the basal ganglia is
composed of:
–  Amygdala
–  Subthalamic nuclei
–  Substantia nigra
–  Other subcortical structures
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•  The caudate and the putamen can be
considered as part of the system that
translates cognition into action.
•  The basal ganglia structures influence all
aspects of motor control.
•  Movement disorders are the most common and
obvious of basal ganglia damage.
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•  The basal ganglia neurons are not motor
neurons in a strict sense.
•  Damage to these neurons causes motor
disturbances but not paralysis.
•  Diseases of the basal ganglia are
characterized by abnormal involuntary
movements as rest (e.g., Parkinson’s Disease
and Huntington’s disease).
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•  Due to a depletion of a neurotransmitter
called dopamine in the neostriatum (caudate
and putamen) due to degeneration of the
substantia nigra.
•  Caused the poverty of movement associated
with the disease.
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•  Loss of neurons in the caudate nucleus.
•  Excessive motor movements.
•  Huntington’s and Parkinson’s patients seems to
have trouble initiating cognitive processes and
control over cognitive processes.
•  Emotional disturbances may be present.
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•  Also implicated in the procedural memory
system.
•  Seems to act as a buffer for establishing
procedural skills and response patterns and
participating in the development of new
response strategies (skills) for novel
situations.
•  Damage to the basal ganglia - reduced
cognitive flexibility and set shifting.
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•  Alterations in the nonmotor areas of the
basal ganglia have been associated with:
–  Schizophrenia
–  Obsessive-compulsive disorder
–  Depression
–  Tourette’s syndrome
–  Autism
–  Attention Deficit Disorders
•  Emotional flattening and reduced drive =
bilateral basal ganglia damage.
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The limbic lobe
is located deep
in the brain, and
makes up the
limbic system.
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The limbic system is the
area of the brain that
regulates emotion and
memory. It directly
connects the lower and
higher brain functions.
A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 
Cingulate gyrus
Fornix
Anterior thalamic nuclei
Hypothalamus
Amygdaloid nucleus
Hippocampus
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•  Small structure located deep in the anterior
part of the temporal lobe.
•  It has input and output connections with the
cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia,
thalamus, hypothalamus and brain stem nuclei.
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•  Plays an important role in:
–  Emotional processing and learning
–  Modulation of attention
–  Vegetative and protective drive states (e.g., chewing,
salivating, licking, and gagging)
–  Movement patterns
–  Associated emotional responses
–  Processing of facial expressions of fear
–  Provides an emotional tag to memory traces
•  Damage to the amygdala:
–  Hypersexuality
–  Diminished aggressive capacity
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•  Located in the medial aspects of the
hemispheres above the corpus callosum.
•  Has important influences on:
–  Selective Attention
–  Response selection. Together with the lateral
prefrontal cortex controls behavior by detecting
errors and signaling the occurrences of conflicts
during information processing.
–  Self-initiated behaviors
–  Emotional behavior
–  Pain perception
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•  Runs within the inside fold of each temporal
lobe for much of its length.
•  Converging evidence from lesion studies,
epilepsy surgery, and functional imaging
studies point to a primary role in normal
learning and retention.
•  Interactions between perception and memory
systems with a particular role in spatial
memory.
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•  Has been described as using a “snapshot” type
of processing to remember a scene or episode
with its unique elements and contextual
features.
•  The hippocampus can later activate retrieval
of the whole representation when a small part
of the representation occurs.
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•  Bilateral damage - severe anterograde
amnesia.
•  Left hippocampal damage - verbal memory
damage.
•  Right hippocampal damage - defective
recognition and recall of complex visual and
auditory patterns to which a name cannot
readily be assigned.
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
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Optic chiasm
Lateral
geniculate
body
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There are two auditory
areas of the brain:
•  The primary auditory
area (brown circle) is
what detects sounds
that are transmitted
from the ear. It is
located in the sensory
cortex.
•  The auditory association
area (purple circle) is the
part of the brain that is
used to recognize the
sounds as speech, music,
or noise.
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The primary
auditory
cortex is
located in
the superior
part of the
temporal
lobe and
buried within
the sylvian
fissure.
Left
Auditory
cortex
Right
Auditory
cortex
Medial geniculate nucleus
Cochlea
Inferior colliculus
Auditory
nerve fiber
Ipsilateral
Cochlear
nucleus
Superior
Olivary
nucleus
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Pathway for pain and
temperature sense.
fMRI of the
Sensation of pain
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The axons project to
the corresponding
lemniscal somatosensory
area of the cerebral
cortex located in the
postcentral gyrus of
the parietal lobe.
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The parietal lobe plays a role in
our sensations of touch, smell,
and taste. It also processes
sensory and spatial awareness,
and is a key component in eyehand co-ordination and arm
movement.
The parietal lobe also contains a
specialized area called
Wernicke’s area that is
responsible for matching
written words with the sound of
spoken speech.
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The motor portion of the cerebrum
is illustrated here. The light red
area is the premotor cortex, which
is responsible for repetitive
motions of learned motor skills.
The dark red area is the primary
motor area, and is responsible for
control of skeletal muscles.
Different areas of the brain are
associated with different parts of
the body.
Injury to the motor cortex can
result in motor disturbance in the
associated body part.
98
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•  The motor cortex is divided
into two main areas, Area 4
and Area 6. Area 4, also known
as the primary motor cortex,
forms a thin band along the
central sulcus. Area 6 lies
immediately forward of Area
4. Area 6 is wider and is
further subdivided into two
distinct sub-areas: the
supplementary motor cortex
and the premotor cortex.
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Primary motor cortex (M1)
Hip
Trunk
Notice that
various body
parts on the
cortex are
proportional not
to their size, but
rather to the
complexity of the
movements that
they can
perform.
Arm
Hand
Foot
Face
Tongue
Larynx
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The gustatory
complex (green
circle) is the
part of the
sensory cortex
(purple area)
that is
responsible for
taste.
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The primary olfactory
cortex is located in the
ventral region of the
anterior temporal lobe. A
secondary region for
olfaction is located in
the lateral parts of the
orbitofrontal cortex.
102
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
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Attentional
Implicated
Process
Brain Structure
Focus/Selective Anterior Cingulate, dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex
Sustained
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,
orbitofrontal cortex, thalamus, anterior
cingulate
Shifting
Left inferior frontal gyrus; rostrodorsal
prefrontal cortex, left parietal,
orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral
prefrontal
Divided
Left prefrontal and medial temporal
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Lack of firing and
reduced
distribution of
norepinephrine is
associated with:
–  Inattention
–  Increased
drowsiness
–  Sleep
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
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The visual cortex resides
in the occipital lobe of the
brain.
Sensory impulses travel
from the eyes via the
optic nerve to the visual
cortex.
Damage to the visual
cortex can result in
blindness.
107
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•  The striate cortex is colored in red. The
striate cortex is the initial projection area
within the occipital lobe for perception.
(Luria’s primary zone)
•  Functions include: perception of color,
sensitivity to contrast, ability to detect fine
details, and temporal (time) resolution.
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•  The extrastriate cortex is colored in yellow
and orange. Neurons in the striate cortex
send axons to the extrastriate cortex, where
perception of objects takes place. (Luria’s
secondary zone).
110
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The visual cortex can be
divided into smaller regions
(Brodmann’s Areas) that
have known specific
functions (e.g., V8 - color
perception, LO - object
recognition, V7 - visual
attention).
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•  Dorsal stream - recognizes
where the object is located
and whether it is moving.
Occipital-parietal pathway.
•  Ventral stream - recognizes
what an object is and what
color it has. Occipital-temporal
pathway.
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The development of this region
may be a result of extensive
experience looking at faces.
Fusiform face area
(shown in green)
The fusiform face area is
underdeveloped in people with
autism, probably because of
insufficient motivation to
become an expert in
recognizing people’s faces.
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
114
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Broca’s Area
Broca’s area is where
we formulate speech
and the area of the
brain that sends motor
instructions to the
motor cortex.
Injury to Broca’s area
can cause difficulty in
speaking. The individual
may know what words
he or she wishes to
speak, but will be
unable to do so.
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•  Broca’s Area responsible
for the production of
language.
•  Prefrontal Cortex
involved in shifting
attention, an important
attribute in reading
comprehension (Mirsky)
•  Arcuate fasciculus
connects anterior and
posterior language areas
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•  Wernicke’s area is a
specialized portion of
the parietal lobe that
recognizes and
understands written
and spoken language.
•  Wernicke’s area
surrounds the auditory
association area.
•  Damage to this part of
the brain can result in
someone hearing
speech, but not
understanding it.
Auditory Association Area
Wernicke’s Area
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Language
functions located
using Positron
Emissions
Tomography
(PET) Scans
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
120
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•  The temporal lobe
plays a role in
emotions, and is also
responsible for
smelling, tasting,
perception, memory,
understanding music,
aggressiveness, and
sexual behavior.
•  The temporal lobe
also contains the
language area of the
brain.
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Medial temporal areas
Hippocampus
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Mishkin and Appenzeller
(1987) conclude that
severity of memory loss
varies in proportion to
the amount of damage
sustained jointly by the
amygdala and the
hippocampus.
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An fMRI of the brain. Green areas were active while
subjects remembered information presented visually. Red
areas were active while they remembered information
presented aurally. Yellow areas were active for both types.
124
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125
Working memory
performance is
typically associated
with a fronto-parietal
network.
126
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
127
The prefrontal
cortex is involved
with intellect,
complex learning,
and personality.
Injuries to the
front lobe can
cause mental and
personality
changes.
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•  The frontal lobe is
the area of the brain
responsible for higher
cognitive functions.
•  These include:
•  Problem solving,
Planning
•  Spontaneity
•  Memory – Retrieval
•  Language
•  Motivation
•  Judgment
•  Impulse control
•  Social and sexual
behavior.
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1.  Orbitofrontal
2.  Prefrontal
dorsolateral
3.  Ventromedial prefrontal
4.  Limbic system
5.  Anterior Cingulate
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•  Dorsolateral prefrontal circuit
–  Mediates “executive functions”
•  Anterior cingulate circuit
–  Involved in motivational mechanisms
•  Lateral orbitofrontal circuit
–  Responsible for the integration of emotional
information into contextually appropriate behavioral
responses.
•  Ventromedial orbitofrontal circuit
–  Regulates impulse control and internal emotional
states
131
132
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
134
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•  Involved in sensory and tactile functioning
as well as visual-spatial orientation •  inferior parietal lobe represents
interface of occipital, temporal, and
parietal regions--presumably the sect
of higher level intelligence.
•  damage to left parietal lobe can lead
to dyslexia, dysgraphia, and
dyscalculia, whereas damage to the
right can lead to deficits in visualspatial skills and
constructional dyspraxia (VMI).
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•  Next, the brain needs to transform the letters
into sounds of language, and ultimately attach
meaning to those sounds.
•  The visual feature information of the word
processed within the occipital lobe is passed
onto one of two different brain pathways: an
upper pathway, called the dorsal stream,
emanates from the left parieto-temporal region
and a lower pathway called the ventral stream is
located at the junction of the occipital and
temporal lobes, the occipito-temporal area.
136
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•  The parieto-temporal system is essential for
phonetic decoding in reading: initially analyzing
a word, pulling it apart by phonemes, and linking
the letters to sounds.
•  Specific brain regions that are activated in the
parieto-temporal region include the angular
gyrus and the supramarginal gyrus.
•  Children learning to read initially use the
parieto-temporal system almost exclusively.
137
Involved in
processing
language, spatial
orientation, and
semantic
representation.
138
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•  Involved in both processing
language and making
phonemic discriminations.
Plays key role in memory and
emotion as well.
•  Left temporal lobe
extremely critical for
decoding 44 phonemes which
comprise the English
language
•  Vital for mediating VISUAL/
VERBAL tasks
•  Semantic memory and verbal
short-term memory housed
in temporal lobes.
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1.  Parieto-temporal
pathway = phonetic
decoding.
2.  Left frontal (Broca’s
area) = phonetic
decoding.
3.  Occipito-temporal
pathway = automatically
recognizing words in
print (fluency)
Good readers show a
consistent pattern of
activation in the back
of the brain (the
occipito-temporal
pathway) with less
activation in the front
pathways (Shaywitz,
2003).
140
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1.  Parieto-temporal
pathway = phonetic
decoding.
2.  Left frontal (Broca’s
area) = phonetic
decoding.
3.  Occipito-temporal
pathway = automatically
recognizing words in
print (fluency)
Inefficient readers or
children with dyslexia
have shown the
opposite pattern
(Shaywitz, 2003).
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
142
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Dysgraphia
Subtype
•  Lexical
Agraphia
Brain Region Involved
•  Lesions in the posterior part of the
angular gyrus and the
occipitotemporal region, along with
other regions of the left hemisphere,
excluding the perisylvian region.
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Dysgraphia
Subtype
•  Phonological
agraphia
Brain Region Involved
•  Lesions in the posterior perisylvanian
region, including the supramarginal
gyrus and insula.
supramarginal
gyrus
insula
144
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Dysgraphia
Subtype
•  Apraxia
agraphia
Brain Region Involved
•  Lesions involving the parietal lobe,
either ipsilateral or contralateral to
the hand used for writing.
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Dysgraphia
Subtype
•  Spatial
apraxia
Brain Region Involved
•  Lesions in the nondominant parietal
lobes that often produces hemispatial
neglect.
146
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•  Berninger (2004) reported that writing
components involved with fine motor control
and language generation can be related to
areas of the frontal lobes and the cerebellum.
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
148
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149
In clinical groups
with known
dyscalculia (women
with Turner’s
syndrome), fMRI
scans found
reduced grey
matter in the intraparietal sulcus
(IPS) the area
thought to be
responsible for
Number Sense.
150
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General Brain Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of Sensory-Motor Functions
Neuroanatomy of Attention
Neuroanatomy of Visual-Spatial Processes
Neuroanatomy of Language
Neuroanatomy of Memory and Learning
Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions
Neuroanatomy of Reading
Neuroanatomy of Writing
Neuroanatomy of Math
Neuroanatomy of Emotions
151
The limbic lobe
is located deep
in the brain, and
makes up the
limbic system.
152
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The limbic system is the
area of the brain that
regulates emotion and
memory. It directly
connects the lower and
higher brain functions.
A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 
Cingulate gyrus
Fornix
Anterior thalamic nuclei
Hypothalamus
Amygdaloid nucleus
Hippocampus
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Three Main Subcortical Brain Regions:
1. Amygdala - responds to unexpected and unfamiliar
events (Kagan, 2007). Ascribes emotional valence to
stimuli and responsible for fear conditioning.
–  A hyperactive amygdala source of most anxiety
problems.
–  Kids with anxiety issues need structure in their day
to reduce chances for unexpected and unfamiliar
events.
–  Serotonin can help calm down amygdala, like a warm
blanket over brain.
154
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155
Three Main Subcortical Brain Regions:
2. Hippocampus - located in medial temporal lobe and
responsible for laying down new memories in a sense of
space a time, and retrieving older ones.
–  Chronic stress from abuse or neglect releases cortisol
which reduces hippocampal volume and leads to memory
loss and clouded thinking.
–  Emotional learning (classical conditioning) can take
place outside of conscious control with paired
association between amygdala and hippocampus …….a
phobia!!
156
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157
Three Main Subcortical Brain Regions:
3. Nucleus Accumbens - located in forebrain and part of
basal ganglia.
–  Reward center of brain which is activated in
anticipation of reward.
–  Most recreational drugs including cocaine and
amphetamines increase dopamine in this area.
–  Involved in task motivation and rewards.
158
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159
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Three Main Cortical Brain Regions:
1. Orbitofrontal cortex - region of the brain responsible for
ascribing an emotional valence or value judgment to
another’s feelings. Often triggers an automatic social skills
response (Rolls, 2004) Has rich interconnections with the
limbic system.
2. Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex – responsible for response
inhibition and emotional regulation.
3. Anterior Cingulate Cortex - motivation and reward based
decision making. Key brain region in developing “theory of
mind”.
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•  Lezak, M. D. (2004). Neuropsychological
Assessment (4th Ed.). New York: Oxford
University Press.
•  Teeter, P. A. and Semrud-Clikeman, M. (1997).
Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and
Interventions for Neurodevelopmental
Disorders. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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