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Bio EOC Cram Chapters 12-20 Ch 12 - DNA Scientists Griffith - transformation = process in which one bacteria takes the characteristics of another (takes in genes) Avery - added enzymes to destroy organic compounds, but not DNA trans. - added DNA-destroying enzymes no trans. Therefore, DNA is the transforming factor Hershey and Chase - bacteria, viruses, radioactive P & S - observed which material was injected (DNA) - Genetic material = DNA Structure DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid Made of repeating nucleotides (subunit) Nucleotide = sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate, base 4 bases – adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine A & G = larger purines C & T = smaller pyrimidines Chargaff (1949) – studies A always same % as T C always same % as G - so, _______________ = Chargaff’s Rules Franklin – (1952) – X-ray diffraction - showed DNA as a tightly coiled spring = helix Watson & Crick (1953) – used Franklin’s and Chargaff’s info to determine structure Double helix held together by weak Hydrogen bonds DNA Replication DNA separates into 2 strands – each serving as template for new strands Point at which DNA splits = Replication Fork Enzyme (helicase) breaks H bonds and untwists DNA Enzyme (DNA Polymerase) moves complementary nucleotides in place to bond properly Chapter 13 - RNA RNA = ribonucleic acid 3 structural differences b/t DNA & RNA DNA Sugar = deoxyribose Base = thymine Double helix RNA Sugar = ribose Base = uracil Single stranded Gene Expression Step 1 = Transcription = DNA acts as template to make RNA Enzyme - RNA polymerase - reads DNA, binds at promoter - separates DNA strands - reads one side of DNA (template strand) - adds complementary RNA nucleotides Transcription So, transcription from DNA to RNA: template of DNA: A C G T A T G A T RNA: Where? Because? Genetic Code = relationship b/t nucleotides in DNA & amino acids Every 3 base letters of mRNA stands for an amino acid = codon START codon = AUG STOP codons = UAA, UAG, UGA Codon Table #2 Translation Molecular Biology Dogma DNA RNA Protein Mutations = heritable changes in a gene; lead to evolution Can be : - neutral - harmful – ex. Cancer, sickle cell - helpful – resistance to poisons, HIV Gene Mutations Chromosomal Mutations Chapter 14 Pairs 1-22 = autosomal chromosomes (autosomes) 23rd pair = sex chromosomes (determine gender) - Male (XY); Female (XX) Pedigree Chart that shows inheritance of a trait over several generations INHERITANCE PATTERNS Complete Dominance Codominance Incomplete dominance Multiple Alleles Polygenic Environmental Conditions X-linked traits Sex influenced traits MULTIPLE ALLELES TRAIT = trait controlled by genes that have more than 2 alleles - Any combo of 2 alleles produces different phenotypes - Ex. Blood types Genotype Phenotype IAIA or IAIi Type A IBIB or IBIi Type B IAIB Type AB IiIi Type O Ch 16 - Evolution Darwin Evolution = genetic change in a species over time Natural Selection = the process by which organisms with variations most suited to their local environment survive and leave more offspring. 1 The Struggle for Existence Organisms produce more offspring than can survive. Grasshoppers can lay over 200 eggs at a time. Only a small fraction of these offspring survive to reproduce. 2 Variation and Adaptation There is variation in nature, and certain heritable variations— called adaptations—increase an individual’s chance of surviving and reproducing. In this population of grasshoppers, heritable variation includes yellow and green body color. Green coloration is an adaptation: Green grasshoppers blend into their environment and so are less visible to predators. 3 Survival of the Fittest Because their green color serves to camouflage them from predators, green grasshoppers have a higher fitness than yellow grasshoppers. This means that green grasshoppers survive and reproduce more often than do yellow grasshoppers in this environment. 4 Natural Selection Green grasshoppers become more common than yellow grasshoppers in this population over time because: (1) more grasshoppers are born than can survive, (2) individuals vary in color and color is a heritable trait, and (3) green individuals have a higher fitness in their current environment. Lamarck – - similar species descended from a common ancestor - to explain changes, said acquired traits were passed on to offspring Acquired traits = traits that arose during lifetime, not determined by genes Artificial selection = process in which nature provides the variations, and humans select those they find useful. Evidence for Evolution Fossils Homologous structures = Structures shared by related species and that come from a common ancestor Analogous structures = Body parts that share common function, but not structure ex. Bird wing and bee wing Vestigial structures = inherited from ancestors but has none or little function Embryological development - similar in vertebrates Genetics - DNA sequences shows organism’s history - closely related organisms will have similar DNA sequences & similar amino acid sequences All living things follow same genetic code Ch 18 Classification Systematics = science of naming and grouping organisms Aristotle – B.C. – 1st to group living things - 2 kingdoms – Plant or Animal Carolus Linnaeus – 1730s – Swedish botanist Binomial nomenclature – 2 part scientific name Scientific name = Genus species or Genus species Ex. Homo sapien or H. sapien Ex. Carnegiea gigantia giant Segauro cactus Ex. Permyscus californicus common California mouse Ex. Nymphea odorata fragrant water lily Name – location, characteristics, scientist Developed hierarchy : - Kingdom – broadest - Phylum - Class - Order - Family - Genus - Species – most specific Cladogram – diagram that links organisms by showing how evolutionary lines branched off from common ancestors Based on a derived character = trait that arose in the most recent common ancestor and was passed on Six Kingdoms Animalia Plantae Fungi Protista Archaebacteria Eubacteria Three Domains Domain – based on rRNA sequences 3 Domains - Archae (K. Archaebacteria) - Bacteria (K. Eubacteria) - Eukarya (K. A, P, F, P) Ch 20 – Prokaryotes & Viruses Bacteria Domain Archae - Kingdom Archaebacteria - walls lack peptidoglycan - DNA more similar to eukaryotes - live in extreme environments Domain Bacteria - Kingdom Eubacteria - walls with peptidoglycan - larger domain - found everywhere Eubacteria - grouped by 2 things 1. shape: - bacillus – rod - coccus – spherical - spirallus – spiral, corkscrew 2. Response to Gram Stain: - Gram positive – purple, retains stain; thicker layer of peptidoglycan - Gram negative – pink, doesn’t retain stain; thinner layer of peptidoglycan; unaffected by many antibiotics Viruses Size - ~20nm – 250nm Some char. of life, not all: - no nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles, or membrane - no cellular functions - need a host cell to reproduce Structure Made of : 1. Nucleic Acid (DNA or RNA) 2. Protein coat around it (capsid) Some also have: - lipid envelope outside capsid *helps it infect cell - glycoprotein – used to attach to host cell Viral Replication