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Psy 6120 Study Objectives
Neurons/Neural Communication
1. Know the following terms and be able to label these components in a diagram: soma, dendrites, axon, axon
hillock, axon terminals, myelin, nodes of Ranvier.
2. Name and distinguish three structural types of neurons.
3. Name at least four types of glial cells and describe the functions of each.
4. Define membrane potential and briefly describe how it is measured.
5. Indicate the relative distribution of Na+, K+ and Cl- in the intracellular and extracellular fluid during the
resting membrane potential.
6. Describe the factors responsible for the resting membrane potential.
7. Define and give examples of electrostatic pressure and diffusion.
8. Define the terms depolarize and hyperpolarize.
9. Define and distinguish graded potentials and action potentials.
10. Identify events that trigger action potentials and summarize the molecular mechanisms responsible for
action potentials.
11. Identify at least two factors that influence the speed of axon conduction.
12. Define saltatory conduction and differentiate the speed of conduction in myelinated and unmyelinated
axons. What are nodes of Ranvier?
13. Describe the structures of electrical synapses and summarize the main advantage of electrical synapses.
14. Discuss the advantage of neurochemical synapses over electrical synapses.
15. Define postsynaptic potential and differentiate EPSPs from IPSPs. Also indicate what ions may be involved
in each type of postsynaptic potential.
16. Know and be able to label these components of a neurochemical synapse: presynaptic membrane,
postsynaptic membrane, synaptic vesicles, receptors.
17. List and briefly define the main events involved in the lifecycle of neurotransmitters.
18. Briefly describe the model of calcium-dependent vesicular release of neurotransmitters.
19. List at least three monoamine neurotransmitters and two amino acid neurotransmitters. Name the
monoamines that belong to the subfamily catecholamines.
20. Identify the amino acid precursors for dopamine and serotonin.
21. Identify at least two peptide neurotransmitters and summarize the physiological functions regulated by their
actions.
22. Identify the neurotransmitter released by neurons found in each of these areas: raphe nuclei, locus coeruleus,
basal forebrain, substantia nigra.
23. Differentiate ionotropic receptor activation from metabotropic receptor activation and summarize the
advantages and limitations of each.
24. Identify two ways that the synaptic actions of neurotransmitters are deactivated.
Structure/Organization of the Nervous System
1. List and describe the three layers of meninges.
2. Briefly describe the blood brain barrier.
3. List the ventricles. Identify the brain division in which each ventricle is found.
4. Identify the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system. Distinguish these subdivisions based on
anatomy, neurochemistry and function.
5. List the five main subdivisions of the human brain. Identify one or two structures found in each subdivision.
6. Name the four cerebral lobes and identify their locations.
7. Identify which cerebral lobes contain the primary motor cortex and each of the following primary sensory
areas: visual cortex, somatosensory cortex, auditory cortex.
8. Identify three planes of dissection used to view the brain.
9. List and define directional terms used in neuroanatomy.
10. Name the 12 cranial nerves. Note which cranial nerves provide only sensory input. Identify the functions of
at least five cranial nerves.
11. Identify two structures that comprise the diencephalon and briefly characterize their main functions.
12. Identify two structures that comprise the mesencephalon and briefly characterize their main functions.
13. Identify two structures that comprise the metencephalon and characterize their main functions.
14. Identify at least three structures that are part of the limbic system. Characterize some of the main functions
of the limbic system.
15. Identify at three structures that are part of the basal ganglia and characterize their main functions. Identify
two neurological diseases associated with basal ganglia dysfunction.
16. Summarize the general hierarchy of the vertebrate nervous system
.
Vision
1. List the cells of the retina in order from the back of the retina to the front of the retina. Identify the neurons’
axons that form the optic nerve.
2. Define phototransduction and briefly describe this process. Identify the cells involved in this process and
describe their response to light in terms of membrane potentials.
3. Differentiate the photopic and scotopic visual systems. Identify the photoreceptors involved in each one and
distinguish them with respect to approximate numbers, locations, and response characteristics.
4. Name the primary visual pathway. Identify the thalamic relay nucleus in this pathway.
5. Distinguish the magnocellular and parvocellular layers of the LGN.
6. Summarize three general principles of sensory system organization and discuss specific examples to
illustrate these principles.
7. Identify and briefly describe at least two examples to illustrate the modular (columnar) organization of
primary visual cortex.
8. Define “blindsight” and summarize at least two neurological explanations for this phenomenon.
9. Summarize the functional distinction between the dorsal stream and the ventral stream of visual cortical
processing.
10. Define visual agnosia and briefly characterize the syndrome known as prosopagnosia.
11. Define and characterize achromatopsia.
12. Define and characterize akinetopsia.
13. Summarize the symptoms of Balint’s syndrome and describe the region of brain damage involved in this
disorder.
14. Identify and describe at least two disorders of visual perception/cognition that provide evidence for
functional specializations among the cortical mechanisms of vision.
15. Summarize and discuss Zeki’s argument for multiple microconsiousnesses versus a unitary consciousness.
Sleep and Circadian Rhythms
1. List and describe the psychophysiological measures of sleep.
2. Identify and differentiate two brain waves associated with wakeful activity.
3. Describe the typical sleep cycle and the distinguishing features of each stage of sleep.
4. Distinguish slow wave sleep from REM sleep with respect to psychophysiological measures.
5. Summarize at least two proposed functions of sleep.
6. Define circadian rhythm and list some examples of circadian rhythms.
7. Define the following terms: entrainment, zeitgeber, free-running rhythm.
8. Identify two common examples of disruptions to circadian rhythms. Summarize behavioral approaches to
reduce these disturbances.
9. Summarize the results of sleep deprivation studies in human subjects.
10. Summarize and critically evaluate research on sleep deprivation in nonhumans.
11. Summarize research findings regarding REM deprivation.
12. Describe Bremer’s early research on brain mechanisms of sleep. Distinguish the cerveau isole preparation
from the encephale isole preparation.
13. Summarize the conclusions of Moruzzi and Magoun (1949) regarding the role of the reticular formation in
sleep.
14. Identify at least three brain regions involved in the regulation of sleep and specify the neurotransmitter
utilized in each region.
15. Identify the hypothalamic nucleus known to regulate circadian timing of the sleep-wake cycle.
16. List examples of drugs that influence sleep.
17. List some of the causes of insomnia.
18. Describe the features that characterize narcolepsy. Summarize some of the evidence that narcolepsy results
from abnormalities in REM sleep mechanisms.
Neurobiology of Feeding and Energy Regulation
1. Identify examples of physiological regulatory mechanisms.
2. Identify and define four essential features of physiological regulatory mechanisms.
3. List and define three phases of energy metabolism.
4. Identify the short-term and long-term energy reservoirs. Identify and summarize the role of two pancreatic
hormones in the utilization of these reservoirs.
5. Identify some of the physiological signals that regulate feeding behavior.
6. Summarize the role of environmental pressures on feeding behavior.
7. Describe and discuss examples to illustrate the effects of learning and experience on feeding behaviors.
a) For example, describe experimental observations of conditioned food preferences and conditioned taste
aversions.
b) Summarize studies by Weingarten in the 1980s that demonstrated eating behaviors may be classically
conditioned.
8. Identify and summarize physiological mechanisms of satiety. Specify the mechanisms in the head, stomach,
intestines, liver, pancreas, and body fat.
9. Summarize findings form the 1940s-1950s regarding the role of the hypothalamic mechanisms of feeding
and satiety. Discuss alternative explanations based on subsequent research.
10. Identify six neuropeptides found in the hypothalamus and summarize research evidence regarding their
modulatory roles in feeding and satiety. Specify physiological or behavioral effects of these neuropeptides.
11. Identify five peripheral peptides, note where they are produced, and summarize their physiological or
behavioral effects.
12. Identify and discuss contributing factors or possible causes for obesity in our culture.
13. Identify and summarize examples of the main approaches to obesity treatment.
14. Identify and describe a mouse genetic model of obesity. What has this model contributed to understanding
the genetics of obesity?
15. Summarize examples of epidemiological and experimental evidence for the health benefits of calorie
restriction.
16. Discuss reasons why dieting is often ineffective in maintaining long term weight loss. Specify the effects of
dieting on basal metabolism.
17. Define and distinguish anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.
18. Summarize research findings from neuroimaging studies of patients diagnosed with anorexia. How have
these studies assisted with the diagnostic classification of anorexia?
19. Summarize research findings regarding the role of hereditary factors in anorexia.
20. Identify some of the neurochemical abnormalities associated with anorexia. Are these abnormalities
suspected causes or consequences of the disorder? Explain.
Emotions
1. List three categories and specific examples of emotional responses.
2. Name the main structures that comprise the limbic system.
3. Describe the typical procedures used to demonstrate conditioned fear.
4. Identify the main subdivisions of the amygdala. Note which of these structures is critically involved in the
establishment of conditioned emotional responses and summarize some of the evidence for its involvement
in CERs.
5. Identify neural circuits involved in distinct components of conditioned fear (e.g., behavioral, autonomic,
hormonal responses).
6. Summarize research from human studies for amygdala involvement in fear.
7. Summarize key research findings regarding the role of serotonin in aggression.
8. Identify brain regions involved in defensive and predatory aggression.
9. Critically evaluate research regarding the link between testosterone and aggression. Summarize both
nonhuman and human studies.
10. Summarize evidence from human studies for lateralization of emotion recognition.
11. Identify the neural circuits involved in facial expressions of emotion. Summarize the evidence that
voluntary and spontaneous facial expressions involve different neural mechanisms.
12. Distinguish the James-Lange and the Cannon-Bard theories of emotion. What did Schacter’s cognitive
theory add to both of these theories of emotion?
13. Summarize Eckman’s research on feedback from simulated emotion and discuss the implications of these
studies.
Learning and Memory
1. List and define four types of learning described by Carlson. Distinguish relational learning from stimulusresponse learning, according to Carlson.
2. Summarize Hebb’s rule.
3. Define LTP. Describe the experimental procedures commonly used to induce LTP.
4. Describe the neurochemical and structural changes believed to be responsible for LTP and distinguish
NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors with respect to their respective roles in LTP.
5. Summarize some of the experimental evidence in support of LTP as a model of synaptic strengthening
involved in learning and memory in the intact organism.
6. Identify and distinguish the perceptual functions of two visual association cortical pathways.
7. Define and distinguish anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia.
8. Describe the brain surgery that H.M. underwent and why.
9. Summarize the characteristics of temporal lobe amnesia.
10. Describe the symptoms that characterize Korsakoff’s syndrome.
11. Describe and discuss the most common cause and summarize the neuropathology associated with this
Korsakoff’s syndrome.
12. Note the similarities between Korsakoff’s syndrome and other medial temporal lobe disorders.
13. Using clinical examples of amnesia, distinguish implicit memory from explicit memory. Describe specific
tasks that assess each type of memory. Summarize the impairments as well as the spared learning abilities of
individuals with medial temporal lobe damage.
14. How have studies using functional imaging technology contributed to our understanding the medial
temporal lobe in spatial memory? Summarize at least two of these studies.
15. Briefly describe an apparatus commonly used to assess relational learning in nonhumans. How has this
model been used to distinguish relational learning from S-R learning?
16. Describe a procedure commonly used to assess spatial learning in rodents.
hippocampal lesions on performance in this type of learning task.
Describe the effects of
17. Summarize some of the research on the role of the hippocampus in spatial learning and memory in humans.
Brain Lateralization
1. Define cerebral lateralization and list examples of lateralized functions.
2. Identify an obvious anatomical asymmetry between the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
3. Identify the main sources of investigation that have contributed to our current understanding of the brain
mechanisms of language.
4. Identify and briefly describe experimental approaches used to examine cerebral lateralization in humans.
5. Describe Sperry's and Gazzaniga's work with split-brain patients. What did their results reveal about the
functions of the two cerebral hemispheres?
6. Define aphasia and list at least three main types of aphasia.
7. Describe the respective locations of Wernicke's area and Broca's area.
8. Summarize the language impairments that characterize Broca's aphasia.
9. Summarize the language impairments that characterize Wernicke’s aphasia.
10. Compare and contrast Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia. Explain why it is an oversimplification to
categorize Broca’s aphasia as an expressive aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia as a receptive aphasia.
11. Define and characterize apraxia of speech. Summarize the findings of clinical studies of patients with this
disorder. What region of brain damage was common to all these cases?
12. What is pure word deafness? What is the main implication of this condition regarding the distinction
between word recognition and comprehension?
13. Define and distinguish transcortical sensory aphasia and conduction aphasia. How do both of these aphasias
differ from both Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias?
14. Describe the reading and writing skills of people with aphasia.
15. Briefly Summarize the Wernicke-Geschwind model of aphasia.
16. Characterize the involvement of the right hemisphere in language-related behavior.
17. Summarize the evidence that sign language relies on similar neural circuitry as spoken language.
18. Define and distinguish acquired and developmental dyslexias.
19. Contrast surface dyslexia and deep dyslexia in terms of deficits and intact functions. What do these two
subtypes suggest regarding brain systems involved in reading?
20. Summarize some of the neuroanatomical findings associated with dyslexia.
21. Summarize and discuss some of the evidence for sex differences in cerebral lateralization.
Anxiety and Stress Disorders
1. Identify the adrenal hormones, pituitary hormones, and hypothalamic hormones involved in stress
responses. Describe the feedback loops among these structures and hormones.
2. Describe the acute physiological effects of cortisol and the catecholamines.
3. Define psychoneuroimmunology.
4. Identify and describe potential health risks of chronic stress. What key factors appear to modulate these
effects?
5. Cite research evidence from humans and nonhumans regarding the hormonal effects of social stress.
6. List the various subtypes of anxiety disorders.
7. Identify drugs commonly used in the treatment of anxiety disorders and briefly describe their neurochemical
actions.
8. Summarize some of the findings of neuroimaging studies of patients with panic disorder.
9. Summarize some of the findings of neuroimaging studies of patients with OCD.
10. Describe the psychobiological model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.
11. Summarize and discuss evidence of neuropathology in PTSD sufferers.
Schizophrenia and Depression
1. Define schizophrenia. Identify and describe the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
2. Summarize the heritability of schizophrenia based on twin studies and adoption studies.
3. Describe the neuropathology of schizophrenia as indicated by CT and/or MRI scans of schizophrenics'
brains.
4. Summarize and discuss the hypofrontality hypothesis of schizophrenia.
5. Summarize the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia and note key discoveries that led to the development
of this hypothesis.
6. Critically evaluate evidence in support of and in opposition to the DA hypothesis of schizophrenia.
7. Summarize investigations regarding the possibility of excessive dopamine receptors in the schizophrenic
brain. What were the main results?
8. Identify other key neurotransmitter systems besides dopamine that appear to be critically involved in the
neuropathology of schizophrenia. Summarize relevant research findings regarding their involvement.
9. Identify examples of traditional neuroleptic drugs and more recent atypical antipsychotic drugs.
Differentiate these drugs with respect to their therapeutic effects, pharmacological effects, and side effects.
10. Describe and discuss the most serious side effects of neuroleptic drugs.
11. Summarize the prevalence of major depressive disorder.
12. Summarize the heritability of major depressive disorder based on twin studies.
13. Describe and discuss the results of brain imaging studies regarding neurological abnormalities associated
with depression.
14. Summarize and critically evaluate the monoamine hypothesis of depression.
15. Summarize evidence for hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system involvement in depression.
16. Describe the sleep abnormalities that may accompany major depression.
17. Identify at least three physiological interventions for depression.
18. Name at least three classes of antidepressant drugs. Describe the pharmacological actions and note the side
effects associated with each type of antidepressant.