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PORTFOLIO 2 / page 1
UNIT 2 Hereditary material: DNA, RNA and protein synthase
Session 1
Reading evidence.
Chapter 12 DNA
“The arsenic-loving bacteria” _____________________________________________________________________________________
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12.1 Identifying the Substance of Genes Answer the questions in plenary.
Answer the following questions.
1What is DNA?
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2Why is it considered that DNA is the cellular basis of life?
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3What is a gene?
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4What is the role of DNA in inheritance?
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5How do genes work?
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Define:
Transformation ______________________________________________________________________
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Bacteriophage ________________________________________________________________________
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Session 2
Experiments and contributions.
Flowchart A flowchart is a way to show the steps in a process. As you read Lesson 1, think about all the experiments that
scientists performed to understand the job of DNA in cells. Reflect on what scientists learned from each experiment. The three
flowcharts below summarize these experiments.
Complete each flowchart with a sentence that describes either the experiment or its results.
Researcher
Results
Experiment
Griffith
Some chemical factor
changed bacteria.
Avery
DNA is the molecule that
changed bacteria.
Hershey and Chase
Bacterial transformation.
Labeled nucleic acids in
viruses with radioactive
isotopes of phosphorous32.
Answer the questions about Griffith’s experiment.
1. Griffith killed some disease-causing bacteria. He then mixed these dead bacteria with harmless bacteria that
were alive. When he injected this mixture of bacteria into laboratory mice, what happened?
2. After the experiment described above, what did Griffith conclude?
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12.1 Assessment
1- a. Review List the conclusions that Griffith and Avery drew from their experiments.
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b. Identify Variables What was the experimental variable that Avery used when he repeated Griffith’s
work?
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2- a. Review What conclusion did Hershey and Chase draw from their experiments?
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b. Infer Why did Hersheys and Chase grow viruses in cultures that containes both radioactive phosphorus
and radioactive sulfur? What might have happened if they had used only one radioactive substance?
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3- a. Review What are the three key roles of DNA?
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b. Apply Concepts Why would the storage of genetic information in genes help explain why chromosomes
are separated so carefully during mitosis?
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Answer the following questions:
1What is bacterial transformation?
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2What conclusion reached Frederick Griffith and Oswald Avery from their experiments?
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3How is transformation stored in DNA?
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12.2 The Structure of DNA
Session 3
Diagnostic activity – DNA-
Answer the following questions.
1What are the chemical components of DNA?
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2What experiments led to the elucidation of the structure of DNA?
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3What is a nucleotide?
______________________________________________________________________________
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DNA Components
Answer the following questions.
1What are the basic components of DNA?
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2What is a nucleotide made of?
______________________________________________________________________________
3What are the nitrogenous bases of DNA?
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4How are the nitrogenous bases of DNA?
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5What type of bond links the nucleotides?
______________________________________________________________________________
6What is the DNA structure?
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Solving the structure of DNA
Nucleic Acid and Nucleotides DNA is made of long chains of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains
three basic parts: a base, a deoxyribose molecule, and a phosphate group. There are four different
bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. Only one base is found in each nucleotide.
Follow the directions.
1. In the diagram below, the sequence of nucleotides has the code AGCT. Color the diagram using this
key:
deoxyribose: red
guanine: orange
phosphate group: blue
thymine: black
adenine: yellow
cytosine: green
2. Circle one complete nucleotide.
Answer the questions.
3. Circle the correct answers. What two parts do all nucleotides have in common?
guanine
deoxyribose
phosphate group
4. Each nucleotide is connected to the next nucleotide. The connection is found between
A. sugar of one nucleotide and phosphate of another
B. base of one nucleotide and sugar of another
C. phosphate groups of two nucleotides
5. What are the parts of a DNA nucleotide? __________
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Session 4
Important contributions
Discovery of DNA structure
Fill in the following chart with the contributions of the scientist that discover the DNA’s double
helix molecule.
Scientist
Contributions
Erwin Chargaff
Rosalind Franklin
James Watson and Francis Crick
Other
The Double Helix Model
Build a model!!
You will need the following material to develop this activity.
Materials Needed:
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- 52 beads per student (26 of two different colors)
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) - 24 beads per student (6 of 4 different colors)
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- 18” per student (May use 20 gauge floral wire already cut to 18” pieces)
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- 20” per student
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- 1 per student
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-nose pliers & wire cutters (1 for each group), plastic
containers for the beads (small and large), small plastic cups for holding beads,
Your teacher will show you a power point presentation to make a DNA model key chain. Follow
the instructions and have fun.
12.2 Assessment
1- a. Review List the chemical components of DNA.
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b. Relate Cause and Effect Why are hydrogen bonds so essential to the structure of DNA?
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2- a. Review Describe the discoveries that led to the modeling of DNA.
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b. Infer Why did scientists have to use the tools other than microscopes to solve the structure of
DNA?
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3- a. Review Describe Watson and Crick’s model of the DNA molecule.
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b. Apply Concepts. Did Watson and Crick’s model account for the equal amounts of thymine and
adenine in DNA? Explain.
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12.3 DNA Replication
Session 5
Diagnostic activity –DNA replication-
How do cells copy their DNA?
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Copying the code
The Role of Enzymes Enzymes have several important jobs in DNA replication. The jobs of some
enzymes are listed below.
Write the jobs in the order in which they occur.
join free nucleotides to existing DNA strand
unwind DNA
unzip DNA
1.
2.
3.
The diagram below shows the replication of DNA. Look carefully at the diagram.
Nitrogenous
bases
Original
strand
Replication fork
DNA polymerase
New strand
Direction of
Replication
Direction of
Replication
New strand
DNA
polymerase
Original
strand
Replication
fork
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Answer the questions.
4. In your own words, define the word replicate.
5. Enzymes usually end in -ase. What is the name of the enzyme that joins individual nucleotides?
6. Circle the correct answer to complete the sentence. A(n)
is the place where a DNA
strand opens to make new strands.
original strand
old strand
replication fork
Replication
Replication in Living Cells
Draw a flow chart using the following statements:
- Replication fork, - New databases are added to each line, - Original DNA molecule
- Produce two bands of DNA identical to the original one.
- The DNA polymerase enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds between base pairs.
When finished compare your diagram with your classmates and make any corrections.
Fill in the chart and compare and contrast replication in prokaryote and eukaryote.
Prokaryotes
DNA Location
DNA Amount
Point where
replication begins
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Eukaryotes
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Replication in Living Cells
Replication in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
During replication, a DNA molecule copies itself. In eukaryotes, DNA is organized into chromosomes
within the nucleus. In prokaryotes, DNA is a circular molecule that is free in the cytoplasm.
Follow the directions.
1. Label one diagram as Prokarytic DNA.
2. Label the other as Eukaryotic DNA.
3. Label both drawings with the following terms: unreplicated DNA, replication fork, origin of
replication.
Answer the questions. Circle the correct answers.
4. In which type of cell is DNA circular?
prokaryotic
eukaryotic
5. In which type of cell does replication begin at several points?
prokaryotic
eukaryotic
12.3 Assessment
1- a. Review How is DNA replicated?
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b. Apply Concepts What is the role of DNA polymerase in DNA replication?
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2- a. Review Where and in what form is prokaryotic DNA found? Where is eukaryotic DNA
found?
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b. Infer What could be the result of damaged DNA being replicated?
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3- Fill in the Venn diagram that compares the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. Compare the location, steps and end products of the process in each kind of cell.
Review questions
Answer the following questions:
1Why is base pairing during replication essential for the transmission of traits from parents
to children in inheritance?
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2Is photocopying a document analogous to DNA replication? If so why?
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Chapter 12 Assessment
1called
abcd-
The process by which one strain of bacterium is apparently changed into another strain is
2-
Bacteriophages are
A form of bacteria
Enzymes
Coils of DNA
Viruses
abcd-
Transcription
Transformation
Duplication
Replication
3Which of the following researches used radioactive markers in experiments to show that
DNA was the genetic material in cells?
a- Frederick Griffith
b- Oswald Avery
c- Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
d- James Watson and Francis Crick
4Before DNA could definitively be shown to be the genetic material in cells, scientists had
to show that it could
a- Tolerate high temperature
b- Carry and make copies of information
c- Be modified in response to environmental conditions
d- Be broken down into small subunit
5Briefly describe the conclusion that could be drawn from the experiments of Frederick
Griffith.
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6What was the key factor that allowed Hershey and Chase to show that DNA alone carried
the genetic information of a bacteriophage?
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7-
A nucleotide does NOT contain
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abcd-
A 5- carbon sugar
An amino acid
A nitrogen base
A phosphate group
abcd-
According to Chargadd’s rule of base pairing, which of the following is true about DNA?
A=T and C=G
A=C, and T=G
A=G and T=C
A=T=G=C
abcd-
The bonds that hold the two strands of DNA together come from
The attraction of phosphate groups for each other.
Strong bonds between nitrogenous bases and the sugar- phosphate backbone
Weak hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases
Carbon- to- carbon bonds in the sugar portion of the nucleotides.
8-
9-
10Describe the components and structure of a DNA nucleotide.
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11Explain how Chargaff’s rule of base pairing helped Watson and Crick model DNA.
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12What important clue from Rosalind Franklin’s work helped Watson and Crick develop
their model of DNA?
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13Why is it significant that the two strands of DNA are antiparallel?
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14-
In prokaryotes, DNA molecules are located in the
a- Nucleus
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b- Ribosomes
c- Cytoplasm
d- Histones
15-
abcd-
In eukaryotes, nearly all the DNA is found in the
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
histones
The diagram below shown the process of DNA
Replication
Digestion
Transformation
Transpiration
abcd-
The main enzyme involved in linking individual nucleotides into DNA molecules is
DNA protease
Ribose
Carbohydrate
DNA polymerase
abcd16-
17-
18What is meant by the term base pairing? How is base pairing involved in DNA
replication?
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19Describe the appearance of DNA in a typical prokaryotic cell.
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20Explain the process of replication. When a DNA molecule is replicated, how do the new
molecules compare to the original molecule?
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21Compare and contrast describe the similarities and differences between DNA replication
in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
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Chapter 13 RNA and Protein Synthesis
13.1 RNA
Session 6
Diagnostic activity. Chapter 13
Answer the following questions.
1What is a code?
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2What is RNA?
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RNA Synthesis
In transcription, RNA polymerase separates the two DNA strands. RNA then uses
one strand as a template to make a complementary strand of RNA. RNA contains the nucleotide uracil
instead of the nucleotide thymine.
Follow the directions.
1. Label the RNA
2. Label the DNA.
on the diagram.
3. Use the key to label the missing nucleotides marked
RNA polymerase
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Key
DNA
RNA
PORTFOLIO 2 / page 16
Answer the questions. Circle the correct answer.
4. In DNA,
is always paired with cytosine.
adenine
guanine
5. In RNA,
replaces thymine.
uracil
cytosine
6. In DNA,
is paired with adenine.
uracil
thymine
uracil
adenine
guanine
The role of RNA
Complete the following table with the differences between RNA and DNA
Nucleic Acid
Sugar
Number of Bands
Nitrogenous bases
RNA
DNA
Discuss the answers and make any improvements or correct any mistakes.
Types of RNA
Fill in the chart organizer to identify the types of RNA and its role in protein synthesis.
Type
Function
RNA
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Session 7
RNA Synthesis
In DNA replication a cell copies its DNA. Both strands of the double helix are used as templates to make
complementary, or matching, strands of DNA. In DNA transcription a single strand of DNA is used as a
template to generate a strand of mRNA.
Follow the directions.
1. Fill in the missing information. One row has been completed for you.
Template
Complementary DNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
TTACGG
AATGCC
AAUGCC
GGCGGC
ACGUAG
AGACTC
GATAAG
CUGGCUACA
Answer the questions.
2. What is the mRNA if the complementary DNA is TCTGAG?
3. What does a cell copy in DNA replication?
4. How many strands of DNA are used to make complementary strands of DNA?
5. How does the cell make RNA?
___
___
___
6. What are introns?
___
7. What are exons?
___
Follow the directions.
Create your own example of DNA. Fill in the chart.
Template
Complementary DNA
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Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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13.1 Assessment
1- a. Review Describe three main differences between RNA and DNA.
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b. Explain List the three main types of RNA, and explain what they do.
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c. Infer Why is it important for a single gene to be able to produce hundreds or thousands of the
same RNA molecules?
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2- a. Review Describe what happens during transcription.
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b. Predict What do you think would happen if introns were not removes from pre-mRNA?
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13.2 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
Session 8
Diagnostic activity – ribosomes and protein synthesisAnswer the following questions:
1What is the genetic code?
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2What is a polypeptide?
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3What is a codon?
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4What is an anticodon?
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Bases
The genetic code
If there are four bases used (adenine, guanine, cytosine
and uracil), how many combinations can there be made?
_______ Combine three bases in different orders. Find the
possible combinations. And write them down.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
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How many combinations are formed? _______________
What nitrogen bases are involved?____________________
What codon marks the start of the translation of a
message? _________________________
Identify in the diagram codons that mark the end of a
message. _______________________________________
What anticodon is assembled with AUG?
_______________________________________________
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Codon
The Genetic Code
A codon is a group of three nucleotide bases in messenger RNA. Each codon corresponds to one amino
acid.
Follow the directions.
1. Circle each codon in the diagram of RNA below.
A
U
G
U
C
G
A
A
C
Answer the questions. Circle the letter of the correct answer.
2. What is a polypeptide?
A. a chain of amino acids
B. a chain of enzymes
3. What does the letter A stand for in the genetic code?
A. amino acid
B. adenine
4. Can a codon contain two of the same nucleotide bases?
A. yes
Translation
Session 9
B. no
Translation
During translation, transfer RNA (tRNA) anticodons match to messenger RNA (mRNA) codons. Each
tRNA molecule can carry one particular amino acid. The amino acids are joined to form a polypeptide.
Number the four tRNA anticodons in the order in which they should appear to match the codons in the
mRNA strand.
List the amino acids in the order they would appear in the
polypeptide coded for by the mRNA.
________
_________
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_________
_________
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13.2 Assessment
1- a. Review How does a cell interpret the genetic code?
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b. Explain What are codons and anticodons?
______________________________________________________________________________
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c. Apply Concepts Using the table in Figure 13-6, identify the amino acids specified by codons:
UGG, AAG, and UGC.
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2-a. Review What happens during translation?
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b. Compare and contrast How is protein synthesis different from DNA replication?
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3- a. Review Why is the genetic code considered universal?
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b. Explain What does the term gene expression mean?
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c. Infer In what way does controlling the protein in an organisms control the organism’s
characteristics?
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
What are the general characteristics of the genetic code?
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______________________________________________________________________________
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Compare the transcription and translation with the process of publishing a book.
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13.3 Mutations
Session 10
Diagnostic Activity - Mutations Answer the following questions:
1What happens when there are changes in the cell’s DNA?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2What happens when mutation occurs?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Types of mutations
Define the following terms:
Mutation _____________________________________________________________________
Point Mutation ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Mutagens ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Translocation _________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Substitution __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Frameshift mutation ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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Polyploidy ___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Insertion _____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Chromosomal mutation _________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Effects of mutations
Session 11
Answer the following questions:
1What are the two main types of mutations? What do they have in common? How do they
differ? _______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2What are the conditions or diseases that result from most types of mutations?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3What distinguishes a mutation for deletion from a substitution mutation?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4Can mutations have a positive effect?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Types of mutations
Gene mutations produce a change in one gene. Point mutations produce gene mutations that involve a
change in one or more nucleotides. Point mutations also occur at only one point in the DNA sequence.
The diagram below shows an original chromosome and three possible point mutations.
Follow the directions.
1. Use the words in the box to add headings to the three lower parts of the diagram.
insertion
deletion
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substitution
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Complete the sentences. Use the terms from the box above.
2. In a(n)
, one base is changed to a different base.
3. In a(n)
, a base is inserted into the DNA sequence.
4. In a(n)
, one base is removed from the DNA sequence.
Answer the questions.
5. Which of the following can result in a frameshift mutation? Circle each correct answer.
A. deletion
B. substitution
C. insertion
6. Why is a frameshift mutation more damaging than a substitution?
___
___
Chromosomal mutations
Mutations that change whole chromosomes are called chromosomal mutations. The diagrams below
show chromosomal mutations. Each diagram represents an original chromosome and a possible
mutation of the chromosome.
AB C
DE F
A C
AB C
DE F
AE D
CB F
AB C
DE F
ABC
J K L DE F
Original Chromosome
Original Chromosome
Inversion
Original Chromosome
AB C
DE F
DE F
Deletion
Translocation
Portfolio 2 / page 24 A
B B C
Duplication
DE F
PORTFOLIO 2 / page 25
Follow the directions.
1. Use the diagrams to help you complete the table.
Mutation
Description
deletion
Part of the chromosome is lost.
Extra copies of a part of a chromosome are
made.
Part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to
another chromosome.
Sections of a chromosome are reversed.
Answer the questions.
2. Which types of mutations can add genes to a chromosome?
3. Which type of mutation can take genes away from a chromosome?
4. Which type of mutation changes the order of the genes, but not the number of genes in a
chromosome?
13.3 Assessment
1- a. Review Describe the two main types of mutations.
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b. Explain What is a frameshift mutation? Give an example.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
c. Infer The effects of a mutation are not always visible. Choose a species, and explain how a
biologist might determine whether a mutation has occurred and, if so, what type of mutation is.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2- a. Review List three effects mutations can have on genes.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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b. Apply Concepts What is the significance of mutations to living things?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
A mutation is caused in the DNA of an organisms that changes a base of the sequence in a
protein coding region of CAC to CAT. What is the effect of the mutation in the final protein?
Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Think Visually Complete the following flowchart about protein synthesis:
1.
Translation begins at the star codon.
The polypeptide is complete.
2.
Chapter 13 Assessment
1-
The process by which the genetic code of DNA is copied into a strand of RNA is called
a- Translation
b- Transcription.
c- Transformation
d- Replication.
2Which of the following describes RNA?
a- RNA is usually double- stranded and contains the base thymine
b- RNA is usually single- stranded and contains the base uracil.
c- RNA is longer than DNA and uses five bases to encode information.
d- RNA is made in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and stays there to carry out its functions.
3Describe the function of each of the three types of RNA.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
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4-
5-
6-
7-
8-
9-
10-
11-
12-
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______________________________
How does the enzyme that makes RNA know where to start transcribing the DNA?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
________________
Compare introns and exons.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
Apply Concepts Suppose you start with the DNA strand ACCGTCAC. Use the rules of base pairing to list
the bases on a messenger RNA strand transcribed from this DNA strand.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
Predict Look at the first intron in the diagram below. What would happened to the protein produced
bye the mRNA molecule if the intron were not removed but functioned instead as an exon?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
________________
In messenger RNA, each codon specifies a particular
a- Nucleotide
b- Enzyme
c- Amino acid
d- Promoter
The numer of codon in the genetic code is
a- 3
b- 4
c- 20
d- 64
Which of the following statement about the genetic code is true?
a- A codon can specify more than one amino acid.
b- Every codon specifies a different amino acid.
c- Some codons specify the same amino acid
d- Some codons have no function at all.
The process of making proteins on the ribosome based on instructions from messenger RNA is called
a- Transcription
b- Transformation
c- Translation
d- Molecular biology
What is a codon?
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How do anticodons function?
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If a code on a DNA molecule for a specific amino acid is CTA, what would the messenger RNA
codon be? The transfer RNA codon?
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Explain why controlling the proteins in an organism controls the organism’s characteristics.
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Predict A researcher identifies the nucleotide sequence AAC in a long strand of RNA inside a
nucleus. In the genetic cod, AAC codes for the amino acid asparagines. When the RNA becomes
involved in protein synthesis, will asparagines necessarily appear in the protein? Explain your
answer.
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Changes in DNA sequence that affects genetic information are known as
a- Replication
b- Mutations
c- Transformations
d- Translations
A single- base mutation is a messenger RNA molecule could transcribe the DNA sequence
CAGTAT into
a- GTCATA
b- GUCAUA
c- GTCUTU
d- GUAAUA
A substance that can cause a change in the DNA code of an organism is called a
a- Toxin
b- Mutagen
c- Nitrogenous base
d- Nucleotide
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Name and give examples of two major types of mutations. What do they have in common?
How are they different?
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How does a deletion mutation differ from a substitution mutation?
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Can mutations have a positive effect?
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Compare and Contrast How does the possible impact of a chromosomal mutation that occurs
during meiosis differ from that of a similar event that occurs during mitosis of a body cell that is
not involved in reproduction?
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Apply Concepts A mutation is the DNA of an organism changes one base sequence in a
protein- coding region from CAC and CAT. What is the effect of the mutation on the final
protein? Explain your answer.
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An expressed gene
a- Functions as a promoter.
b- In transcribed into RNA
c- Codes for just one amino acid.
d- Is made or mRNA
A group of genes that are reculated together is called a(n)
a- Promoter
b- Operon
c- Intron
d- Allele
To turn on the lactose- digesting enzymes of E. colli, the lactose must first
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a- Bind to the repressor
b- Bind to the DNA of the bacterium
c- Separate from the repressor
d- Initiate the synthesis of messenger RNA
Blocking gene expression in eukaryotes with microRNA strands is called RNA.
a- Transcription
b- Translation
c- Interference
d- Digestion
How is gene expression controlled in prokaryotes?
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What is meant by the term cell specialization?
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Describe how TATA box helps position RNA polymerase in a eukaryotic cell.
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What is a homeobox gene?
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Apply concepts The number of promoter sequences, enhancer sites, and the TATA box in
eukaryotes make gene regulation in these organisms far more complex than regulation in
prokaryotes. Why is regulation in eukaryotes so much more sophisticated?
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