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How do we predict offspring? Punnett Square: is a way to show the possible combinations of genes that offspring of parents could have. Example: FATHER’S GENES MOTHER’S GENES Trait: Phenotype: is the way that we look or appear. Example: brown eyes, blonde hair, tall Genotype: is the genetic make up for a trait. Example: Homozygous brown; BB = pure brown: (both genes are the same) Homozygous blue; bb = pure blue: (both genes are the same) Heterozygous brown; Bb = hybrid (mixed) brown: (both genes are different) Examples of Punnett squares to predict possible traits: Trait: Handedness Right-handed Parents (RR)x(Rr) R R R RR RR r Rr Rr Results: Phenotypes = 100% Right handed Genotypes = 50% RR, homozygous right 50% Rr, heterozygous right 0% rr, homozygous left Trait: Height Tall Parents (Tt)x(Tt) T t T TT Tt t Tt tt 75% Tall 25% Short 25% TT, homozygous tall 50% Tt, heterozygous tall 25% tt, homozygous short Trait: Eyecolor Blue-eyed Parents (bb)x(bb) b bb bb b bb bb b b Results: Phenotypes = 100% Blue-eyed Trait: Handedness Pure Right and Pure Left handed Parents (RR)x(rr) R R r Rr Rr r Rr Rr 100% Right-handed Genotypes = 100% bb, homozygous blue 100% Rr, heterozygous right-handed How do genes control traits? What is DNA? (Deoxyriboneucleic Acid) DNA = long threads of material found in all cells. DNA contains the “master code” that instructs all cells in their daily jobs. Genes are short pieces of DNA that make up our chromosomes. Each piece of DNA that is related to a gene makes up one trait. Structure of DNA DNA looks like a twisted “ladder” made of chemical compounds called bases. INSERT PICTURE OF DNA There are 4 types of bases in DNA: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine. These bases fit together like puzzle pieces Adenine Cytosine Thymine e Guanine Genes are pieces of DNA that make up a trait Different genes consist of different arrangements of the Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine bases. These bases can be arranged to form different proteins (chemical messages) These messages control different traits (some determine how we look, some determine how we feel and function). There are many millions of possible combinations of these 4 bases – this is what accounts for all the differences between life forms on earth. ALL characteristics are affected by the DNA in the cells of the individual organism. These characteristics are called traits. Traits depend on the types of proteins that the 4 bases (A,C,G,T) make up. Parents pass on copies of their DNA to their offspring. The DNA from each parent combines to form the DNA of the offspring. How the offspring develops depends on the instructions coded in the DNA donated by both parents. Offspring are similar to parents, but different due to the many possible combinations of the 4 bases. Every individual is unique. How can we use genetics? To predict looks of offspring To predict risks of diseases/defects Sickle-cell Anemia – is a genetically inherited disease where red blood cells are misshaped. Red blood cell shape is an inherited trait. Sickle-cell shape vs Normal cell shape Sickle-cell anemia is cause by incomplete dominance. Incomplete dominance is when neither gene that determines a trait dominates, so the recessive trait is not fully hidden. The result is a “mixed” genetic trait that is neither dominant nor recessive. Advances in genetics We have an increased understanding of certain disease that are inherited. We have increased knowledge of many health conditions (treatment, prevention, and cure). Example: Down Syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome.