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Molecular Biology of the Gene 1952—Hershey & Chase determine that DNA rather than protein carries genetic information 1953—Rosalind Franklin captures image of DNA with x-ray crystalography 1953—Watson & Crick describe the doublehelix structure of DNA Comprised Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine Hydrogen of 4 nucleotides A-T, C-G bonds attach nucleotides Happens in S phase of Interphase Semiconservative replication One parent strand ends up in each daughter DNA Helicase separates hydrogen bonds between base pairs. Occurs in multiple locations on DNA at the same time DNA polymerase binds to each side of the “bubble” DNA polymerase moves along the strand, attaching free nucleotides to complementary bases. ALWAYS A-T and C-G! DNA ligase splices (links, ligates) sections of DNA to form one strand. DNA RNA Double Helix Single Strand Thymine Uracil Inside Nucleus Can Leave Nucleus Entire genetic code Only one gene Messenger mRNA Direct copy from DNA Has codons Transfer RNA tRNA Has anticodons Binds to amino acids Specific for each anticodon Ribosomal RNA RNA rRNA Comprises part of ribosomes Copy of a gene made from the DNA Copy moves to ribosomes Protein is created from this “blueprint” RNA Polymerase unravels part of the DNA strand The polymerase creates a template based on a section of DNA. This is the mRNA. mRNA leaves the nucleus mRNA binds to ribosome tRNA carries an amino acid (AA), matches to a section of the mRNA in the ribosome Another tRNA carries the next AA, the two AAs bond tRNA leaves Subsequent AAs continue to bond, forming a peptide chain At the end of the sequence, the peptide breaks off into the cytoplasm, the ribosome releases the mRNA, and the mRNA breaks apart to be recycled. “The process by which an mRNA template, carrying the sequence of the protein, is produced for the translation step from the genome.” Copying something to be read by someone else in another place. In this case…copying the gene to be used as an instruction manual to make protein in another part of the cell. Initiation RNA polymerase binds to a specific part of the DNA strand. This is the gene. Polymerase unravels this part of the strand, separating the base pairs. Elongation Polymerase begins to slide along the DNA Ribonucleotides match to opposite base, then bond This creates a chain, which is the mRNA Termination Introns (unwanted parts) are “cut out” and removed Exons (coding parts) are fused together A “cap” is put on the end of the mRNA for protection DNA C G C A T A A G C G A C T A G G C T T C A C C C G C T A A G A T G C G T A T T C G C T G A T C C G A A G T G G G C G A T T C T A C G C A U A A G C G A C U A G G C U U C A C C C G C U A A G A U U G C CC A GCA G A CGU G UCA A AAA C AUG C GAC C AG GGA C ACC U CGU U AAAACG GU GU AC CG UC UAG CAG AG AA G AC UC A CC G CA G U UA U AC C G AA U U CCC AAC CCC CCG GGU CCAG UU AG AU AC AG AA ACCC AU AA AA mRNA AThe The poly Using Aintrons exons cap A the tail are is DNA added added. joined template toof together, the The RNA: strand, tail isinThe usually sequence. RNA cap polymerase around is gene necessary The 150 removal manufactures Adenine the ofaintrons RNA bases; tothere aRNA and bind fewmay the molecule to bases joining at (pre-mRNA) the of the end for exons offew the A gene: aissequence are removed. double-stranded A typical human DNA. On has average, 6for introns, human butan gene isthe about be ribosome hundreds; 14kb (14,000 a RNA translation occur using molecule concurrently the tobut begin, are “trimmed”, and andthe probably base process before pair aids is poly-adenylation. rules. known stability. In asRNA RNA, “splicing”. “Capping” Uracil isIt actually tail complementary actually istemplate. also occurs occurs required immediately while to for Adenine the the initiation RNA after in DNA. isRNA still of In the region of the gene, Transcription: the DNA unwinds making and the 2 The strands a DNA come apart. RNA polymerase, an The bases incomplementary the introns are recycled. There are several hypothesis about the origin of introns. It base have pairs) none. A typical size human is highly intron variable. is around The 1dystrophin kbfrom but it can gene, be encoding hundreds aof muscle kb. On protein, average, has translation The and DNA stability. strand that acts splicing as10-20 being the synthesis and template synthesized. poly-adenylation begins. strand varies are from known gene asisDNA to “RNA gene. processing”. While average enzyme, human the mRNA key molecule molecule for has the about manufacture 2,600 bases, of RNA theG-C from size highly variable. Thean RNA comes Note offisCapping, the the DNA complementary template which reforms pair rules; a75kb double-stranded A-T and molecule has been suggested that some may have abase function inthan the cell, before or after excision. 2.4Mb (2.4 million introns base pairs). are Typically, times there larger is exons. between human genes. “Protein translation involves the transfer of information from the mRNA into a peptide, composed of amino acids. This process is mediated by the ribosome, with the adaptation of the RNA sequence into amino acids mediated by transfer RNA.” Taking something in a language you can’t use, and making it into a language that you can use. In this case…taking the “language” of the DNA & mRNA, which the cell can’t directly use, and converting it into the “language” of proteins, which the cell can use. Ribosomes (two subunits) are in cytoplasm tRNA attaches to amino acids in cytoplasm Ribosome binds to the beginning of the mRNA chain Initiation Starts with a 3-base section of the template, a “codon”, specifically the “start codon” tRNA with matching “anticodon” attaches Another tRNA matches to the next codon Amino acids bond Elongation Ribosome moves down the mRNA one codon at a time tRNA continues to match codon to anticodon, bringing more AAs AAs bond, forming a lengthening chain Termination Ribosome reaches “stop codon” Creation stops, and a release factor binds to the stop codon Ribosome releases, polypeptide can be modified and used, mRNA is recycled val thr gly U G C C C G arg phe leu C A U met G C G A A G Polypeptide G A U arg U A C G C U Stop C G C A U A U G C G A C U A G G C U U C A C C C G C U A A G Start mRNA thr Transcription Initiation Elongation Termination Translation Initiation Elongation Termination Changes in the DNA sequence Alterations in sequence of nucleotides Altering the DNA alters the mRNA Altering mRNA changes the codons Since amino acids are specific for a codon, the polypeptide chain can be different during translation