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Review Sheet #1 Chapters 1 and 2 The Scientific Method and Neurobiology Intro: What is psychology? Observable behavior AND mental processes Definition (remember:it is a SCIENCE) How is it different from other disciplines? How is it different from psychiatry? Medical Doctors, prescribe Key Names William Wundt-est. first psychology laboratory in Germany William James-introducted functionalism.Wanted to consider the functions of our thoughts and feelings Edward Titchner-Introduced structuralism and introspection (looking inward). Student of William Wundt.- Goal was to discover the elements of the mind. G. Stanley Hall-First president of the American Psychological Association. Was inspired by William Wundt’s, Principles of Physiological Psychology Sigmund Freud-Psychoanalysis!! Approaches (early) Structuralism- used introspection(looking inward) to explore the elemental structure of the human mind Functionalism-focuses on how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. Subfields Applied: psychology put into practice Basic: grounded in research Chapter 1: (Research Methods) - Famous people: Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund Freud, John Watson, BF Skinner (operant conditioning) - Types of descriptive research: case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, correlation (correlation does NOT mean causation and be wary of CONFOUNDING variables….anything that can cause a difference that is not the independent variable) - Experimental study is the only type of research that determines CAUSE AND EFFECT - The major psychological perspectives (to explain human behavior): o Biological (body & brain) o Cognitive (thinking) o Behavioral (observed) o Socio-cultural(environment) o Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic (unconscious drives/motives) The Scientific Method - Understand the difference between correlation research methods (shows only predictability) such as the survey method and the scientific (experimental) method (shows cause and effect). - Thesis and Hypothesis o Independent variable (what is tested) v. Dependent variable (what is measured) o Experimental v. Control groups (experimental is tested – receives the ID v. the control group is the basis of comparison- no treatment or a placebo) o Controls (to reduce bias): Possibilities include random selection of all subjects, random assignment to groups, double-blind, replication, and a placebo (if a drug experiment). o Operational definition:a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables making it possible for another scientist to replicate. o Sample must be a representative sample!! (sample truly reflects the population being tested) o Internal Validity (results are attributed to the independent variable) v. External Validity (extent to which results can be generalized to the real world) This scientific methodology helps to overcome “hindsight bias”(you knew it all along) and “overconfidence” - Ethical considerations in psychological research: Guidelines to the APA requirements o Must have: informed consent, no harm to the subjects, debriefing afterwards and confidentiality of the results o Examples in Psychology: 1970s Milgram Study (Stanly Milgram) on obedience. Controversial because participants weren’t fully aware of all information. As well as Zimbardo Prison Study: lasting physical harm. STATISTICS - The use of inferential statistics: used to determine our level of confidence in claiming that a given set of results would be extremely unlikely to occur if the result was only up to chance. Useful tool in hypothesis testing o Scientists want to be able to generalize their results!! o Null Hypothesis: states that the treatment had no effect in an experiment o Alternate Hypothesis:states that the treatment did have an effect o Statistically significant: a result can be generalized with some level of confidence to the population (null hypothesis is rejected) o Alpha: is the accepted probability that the result of an experiment can be attributed to chance rather than the independent variable. Set at .05. o Type I Error: False positive (IV made a difference when it really didn’t) o Type II Error: False negative (IV didn’t make a difference when it really did) o P-Value: The probability of making a Type I error. Indicates the results are statistically significant (not due to chance). If P=.05, we only have a 5% chance of making a Type I error. The Null is True The Null is False Fail to Reject the Null Correct Type II Error Reject the Null Type I Error Correct Chapter 2: Neurobiology - Neurotransmissions and the nervous systems: (neurotransmission is often nicknamed the “all-or-nothing response” to explain the electrical firing of neurons and the chemical release of neurotransmitters) o Axons, dendrites, synaptic gap and myelin sheath (parts of a neuron) o Action potential-depolarization (positive ions flood in such as potassium and sodium), refractory period (recovering can’t fire), threshold, reuptake (absorbing remaining neurotransmitters) o Specific neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (memory and muscle contraction), endorphins (natural painkillers), serotonin (related to arousal, sleep, pain, mood, and hunger), dopamine (reward, imbalances are evident in Parkinsons-too little and Schizoophrenia-too much), o Inhibitory(inhibit or stop a cell from firing) vs. excitatory (excite or cause the neuron to fire) o Types of neurons: Sensory (afferent-arriving to the brain), Motor (efferentexiting the brain) [remember SAME], and Interneurons (reflexes) o Psychoactive drugs can be Agonists (excite) and antagonists (inhibit) o Structure of the nervous systems: central, peripheral, autonomic, somatic, sympathetic (fight or flight) and the parasympathetic (calming) [remember SYMpathy for one in crisis; PARAchute to calm down slowly] - The endocrine system: Involves our major glands such as the adrenal(secrete ephiniphrine and norepinephrine) and pituitary (master) glands and hormones such as adrenaline, testosterone, estrogen and norepinephrine. - The Brain: The three general region are the Brainstem (Medulla), the Limbic System (emotion….amygdala-emotion, hippocampus-memory, and hypothalamus-hunger) and the Cerebral Cortex-wrinkled outer layer of brain that is involved in higher level thinking. o The brainstem includes the medulla (heartbeat and breathing), the reticular formation (arousal center), the cerebellum (balance) and the thalamus (the “sensory switchboard”) o The limbic system includes the hippocampus (memory), the hypothalamus (directs the endocrine system/”pleasure center”), and the amygdala (emotions such as anger and aggression) o The cerebral cortex is the brain’s neural covering and the brain’s information processing center where neurons communicate o Plasticity-the brain can adjust and adapt!! o Association areas-responsible for associating information in the sensory and motor cortices. Higher level mammals have more associating areas. - The four lobes include the: occipital (vision), parietal (sensory cortex), temporal (hearing) and frontal (personality and judgments – ex. Phinneas Gage) The two hemispheres include the: o Right: spatial and creative - o Left: language and logical math reasoning o Broca’s area – making speech (left frontal) o Wernicke’s areas – comprehending speech (left temporal) - Brain imaging techniques: o Some show brain anatomy: CAT scans (x-ray pictures), MRIs (measures magnetic activity) o Some show brain activity: EEGs (measures electrical impulses), PET scans (measures glucose consumption) o Some show both: fMRI (uses magnetic field and measures oxygen levels)