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Cover image coming soon. Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 2 Dr. Kuther's Chalk Talks: Part II Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 3 VIDEO CASE BODY PROPORTIONS IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD Watch 13-month-old London, 3-year-old Ella, and 4-year-old Abigail as they demonstrate changing body proportions from infancy to early childhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 4 Body Growth – Cephalocaudal development • Growth proceeds from the head downward. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 5 Body Growth – Proximodistal development • Growth and development proceed from the center of the body outward. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 6 Growth Norms • Expectations for typical gains and variations in height and weight for children based on their chronological age and ethnic background Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 7 Breast-Feeding – One of the best ways of meeting infants’ complex nutritional needs – Recommended by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services – In the U.S., over three quarters of mother breast-fed in 2010. – 40% continue to breast-feed after 6 months; 27% continue to breast-feed at 12 months. – Breast-feeding practices vary by ethnicity, education, socioeconomic status, and maternal age. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 8 Factors that Influence Breast-Feeding – Paid maternity leave for part or all of an infant’s first year of life • Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Australia have breastfeeding rates of 94% and more. – Income level and education • In the U.S. and U.K., the lowest rates of breast-feeding are among low-income mothers and mothers with low levels of education. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 9 Benefits of Breast-Feeding: Mothers • Lower rates of: – Diabetes – Cardiovascular disease – Depression – Ovarian cancer (after menopause) – Breast cancer (after menopause) – Bone fractures (after menopause) Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 10 Benefits of Breast-Feeding: Infants • Easier to digest vs. formula • Immunizing agents that protect the infant against infections • Cognitive advantage • Reduced risk of: – – – – – Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) Allergies Gastrointestinal symptoms Obesity (breast-feeding over 6 months) Childhood cancer (breast-feeding over 6 months) Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 11 Sleep • The typical newborn sleeps about 18 hours each day, waking every 2 hours to eat. – Nighttime feedings continue through five months of age. • By 8 weeks of age, infants begin to show signs of day-night sleep rhythms. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 12 Solid Food • First solid foods are introduced between 4 and 6 months of age. – Starting with iron-fortified baby cereal mixed with breast milk or formula. – As they get older, add pureed foods (vegetables and fruits), add pureed meats later. • Many foods must be introduced over a dozen times before an infant will accept them. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 13 Malnutrition • Over one quarter of the world’s children under age 5 are moderately or severely underweight. • In 2012, 15% of American households experienced food insecurity (lack of consistent access to food). • The most common nutrients missing from infants and toddlers’ diets are iron, zinc, and calcium. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 14 Malnutrition: Marasmus – A wasting disease in which the body’s fat and muscle are depleted • Growth stops, the body wastes away, the skin becomes wrinkly and aged looking, the abdomen shrinks, and the body takes on a hollow appearance . – Results from a diet that is chronically insufficient in protein and calories Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 15 Malnutrition: Kwashiorkor • Found in children who experience a sudden deprivation of food and calories • Characterized by: – Lethargy – Wrinkled skin – Bloating and swelling of the stomach, face, legs and arms – Hair becomes thin, brittle, and colorless Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 16 Consequences of Malnutrition – Impaired learning, concentration, and language skills throughout childhood and adolescence – Stunted growth Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 17 Failure to Thrive • A condition in which an infant’s weight is less than 80% of the norm for their age without any medical reason, such as illness • Common causes: – Inadequate nutrition – Eating too few calories – Psychosocial and contextual factors Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 18 Processes of Neural Development • Neurons – Brain cells that are specialized to communicate with one another to make it possible for people to sense the world, think, move their body, and carry out their lives • Neurogenesis – The creation of new neurons that begins in the embryo’s neural tube – We are born with more than 100 billion neurons (more than we need and more than we will ever have at any other time in our lives). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 19 Neural Development: Glial Cells • A second type of brain cell that outnumbers neurons 10 to 1 • Nourishes neurons and move throughout the brain to provide a physical structure to the brain; instructs neurons to form connections with other neurons • Neurons migrate along a network of glial cells. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 20 Figure 4.4: Glial Cell-Neuron Relationship Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 21 Neural Development: Synaptogenesis • A process in which neurons form synapses and thereby increase connections with other • Peaks in different brain regions at different ages • Transient exuberance – the explosion in connections in the early years of life – The brain makes more connections than it needs in preparation to receive any and all conceivable kinds of stimulation. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 22 Neural Development: Synaptic Pruning • The loss of unused neural connections – The connections that are used become stronger and more efficient, while those unused eventually shrink, atrophy, and disappear. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 23 Neural Development: Myelination • A process which begins during the first two years of life • Glial cells produce and coat the axons of neurons with a fatty substance called myelin. – Myelination contributes to advances in neural communication because axons coated with myelin transmit neural impulses more quickly than unmyelinated axons. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 24 Experience and Brain Development • Infants who are understimulated show cognitive and perceptual deficits. • Experience influences the physical structure of our brains throughout life. • Experience-expectant brain development – The brain depends on experiencing certain basic events and stimuli at key points in time to develop normally. • Experience-dependent brain development – Growth that occurs in response to learning experiences Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 25 Habituation • Occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus results in the gradual decline in the intensity, frequency, or duration of a response Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 26 Classical Conditioning – Learning through association • An association is made between a neural stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that triggers an innate reaction. • Eventually, the neutral stimulus (now conditioned stimulus) produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 27 Operant Conditioning – Infants learn to engage in behaviors based on their consequences, whether they are followed by reinforcement or punishment. • Behaviors increase when they are followed by reinforcement. • Behaviors decrease when they are followed by punishment. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 28 Imitation • Imitation is an important way in which children and adults learn. • Classic study: – Two-day-old infants mimicked adult facial expressions including sticking out the tongue, opening and closing the mouth, and sticking out the lower lip. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 29 Figure 4.6: Newborn Imitating Facial Expressions Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 30 Imitation: Innate Programming • The ability to copy others’ actions is inborn and may have fostered the evolutionary development of social communication. • Newborns do not understand imitation, rather their facial expressions naturally mimic others; imitation becomes voluntary over time. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 31 Deferred Imitation • The ability to imitate an absent model • Six- and 9-month-old infants show deferred imitation after 24 hours. • Twelve-month-old infants display deferred imitation four weeks after observing a model manipulate toys like cups, beads, and blocks. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 32 Sensation and Perception • Sensation – Occurs when our senses detect a stimulus • Perception – The sense our brain makes of a stimulus and our awareness of it Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 33 Sensation and Perception: Hearing • The capacity to hear develops in the womb and is the most well-developed sense at birth. – Newborns are able to hear about as well as adults. • Shortly after birth, neonates can discriminate among sounds. • By 3 days of age, infants can turn their head and eyes in the general direction of a sound. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 34 Sensation and Perception: Vision • Vision is the least developed sense at birth, but it improves rapidly. – Visual acuity – the sharpness of vision or the ability to see • Studied through preferential looking – Tasks designed to determine whether infants prefer to look at one stimulus or another • Newborn visual acuity is approximately 20/400. • Infants reach adult levels of visual acuity between 6 months and 1 year of age. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 35 Depth Perception • The ability to perceive distance • Classic study – The visual cliff (crawling influences how infants perceive depth) Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 36 Sensation and Perception: Touch • Less is known about the sense of touch in infants. • Touch can reduce stress responses in preterm and full-term neonates. • Touch is associated with weight gain in newborns. • Skin-to-skin contact with a caregiver has an analgesic effect (reducing infants’ pain response to the heel stick). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 37 Sensation and Perception: Smell and Taste • Well developed at birth • Newborns can discriminate between smells. • Infants show innate preferences for some tastes: – Preference for human milk – Preference for sugar to other substances Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 38 Sensation and Perception: Intermodal Perception • The process of combining information from more than one sensory system • Research on intermodal perception supports the finding that infants expect vision, auditory, and tactile information to occur together. • Intermodal relations among sense are not bidirectional at birth. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 39 Motor Development: Reflexes • The earliest ways in which infants adapt are through the use of their reflexes (involuntary and automatic responses to stimuli such as touch, light, and sound). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 40 Table 4.1: Newborn Reflexes Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 41 Motor Milestones • Motor skills evolve in a predictable sequence. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 42 Gross Motor Development • The ability to control the large movements of the body – The first milestone in gross motor development is the ability to roll over voluntarily (3 months of age). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 43 Fine Motor Development • The ability to control small movements of the fingers such as reaching and grasping • Voluntary reaching plays an important role in cognitive development because it provides new opportunities for interacting with the world (appears at about 3 months of age). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 44 Determinants of Motor Development • Maturation – For instance, preterm infants reach milestones later than do full-term infants. – Cross-cultural support – infants display roughly the same sequence of motor milestones. • Practice – For instance, when infants from 1 to 7 weeks of age practice stepping reflexes each day, they retain the movement and walk earlier than infants who receive no practice. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 45 VIDEO CASE Motor Development in Infancy Observe 5-month-old Marlee, 10-month-old Damian, and 13-month-old London as they demonstrate milestones of motor development, moving from pushing up from their chest, to sitting, rolling over, crawling, and standing. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 46 Motor Development as a Dynamic System • Separate abilities are blended together to provide more complex and effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment. • Motor development reflects goal-oriented behavior. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 47