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Ch 14 Reviewing this chapter p262 #2-­‐10
#2 What is PCR and how is it carried out to produce mul8ple copies of a DNA segment? p251-­‐252
The PCR is a machine that can create copies of a segment of DNA quickly in a test tube. It uses DNA polymerase and a supply of nucleoIdes. The DNA is first heated to break hydrogen bonds, then a primer is put in and Taq polymerase builds new DNA strands
#3 How does STR profiling produce a DNA fingerprint? p251-­‐252
Short Tandem Repeat (STR) profiling doesn’t require restricIon enzymes
fingerprints: DNA fragments are fluorescently labelled, Lazer excites flurescent STR’s, detector records amount of emissions for each emission in terms of peaks and valleys
#4 What are some prac8cal applica8ons of DNA segment analysis following PCR? 252
the detecIon of a viral infecIon, geneIc disorder, or cancer, the convicIon of criminals, comparing fossils with known animals, the idenIficaIon of vicIms of terrorist aUacks, the establishment of paternity, the detecIon of geneIc disorders, and detecIon of illegally poached animal products (eg. ivory and whale meat)
#5 For what purposes have bacteria, plants and animals been gene8cally altered? 252-­‐254
Biotechnology products produced by bacteria include insulin, cloWng factor VIII, human growth hormone, t-­‐PA (Issue plasminogen acIvator), and hepaIIs B vaccine. Bacteria can be selected for their ability to degrade parIcular substance, and this ability can then be enhanced by bioengineering. Organic chemicals are oZen synthesized by having catalysts act on precursor molecules or by using bacteria to carry out the synthesis.
Techniques have been developed to introduce foreign genes into immature plant embryos or into plant cells called protoplasts that have had the cell wall removed. Foreign genes transferred to crops have made the plants resistant to pests and herbicide. Plants are also being engineered to produce human proteins, such as hormones, cloWng factors, and anIbodies, in their seeds.
Techniques have been developed to insert genes into the eggs of animals. It is possible to microinject foreign genes into eggs by hand, but another method uses vortex mixing. When these eggs are ferIlized, the resulIng offspring are transgenic animals. Many types of animal eggs have taken up the gene for bovine growth hormone (bGH). This procedure has been used to produce larger fishes, cows, pigs, rabbits, and sheep. Gene pharming, the use of transgenic farm animals to produce pharmaceuIcals, is being pursued by a number of firms.
#6 Explain and give examples of ex-­‐vivo and in-­‐vivo gene therapies in humans 254-­‐255
Ex vivo gene therapy: in which cells are removed from an organism, and DNA injected to correct a geneIc defect; the cells are returned to the organism to treat a disease or disorder. Ex vivo gene therapy is being used to treat SCID and familial hypercholesterolemia by adding genes to isolated bone marrow stem cells and liver cells, respecIvely, before returning them to the paIent.
In vivo gene therapy:normal genes are injected directly into an organism to treat a condiIon oZen due to a faulty gene. In vivo gene therapy is being used to treat cysIc fibrosis by introducing genes to cells in the respiratory tract, and genes are being delivered to tumors to make them more suscepIble to chemotherapy
#7 What was the purpose of the human genome project? What is the goal of func8onal genomics? 255-­‐258
human genome project purpose: to determine the complete sequence (to order all the base pairs) of the human genome and to analyze this informaIon. funcIonal genomics’ purpose: to understand the exact role of the genome in cells or organisms
#8 What insights into evolu8onary rela8onships between organisms are arising from compara8ve genomics? 258
The genome of all vertebrates is similar, genes of chimpanzees and humans are 98% alike and 85% like that of a mouse
#9 Describe the various types of intergenic DNA sequences found within the genome pp 256-­‐257
1)repeIIve DNA elements which are sequences of two or more nucleoIdes on one or more chromosomes that repeat several Imes. It is very common, comprising nearly half of the human genome. 2) transposons which are specific DNA sequences that have the ability to move within and between chromosomes. 3) unknown sequences which remain a mystery. It is the majority of intergenic sequencing, has been meIculously maintained, and may play acIve roles in the cell. It may also be what allows humans to achieve structural complexity unlike anything seen in the unicellular world. #10 What are the goals of proteomics and bioinforma8cs pp258-­‐260
Proteomics’ goal: to idenIfy and determine the funcIon of proteins within a parIcular cell type, to discover new/beUer drugs, and to possibly one day correlate drug treatment to a certain proteome of an individual to increase efficiency and decrease side effects.
BioinformaIcs’ goal:to help trace the evoluIonary history among groups of organisms, determine the funcIon of DNA sequences, compare our genome to model organisms, and to know how genes/proteins interact in cells.