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Bacterial Genomics Chapter 10, page 251 First sequenced was Haemophilus influenzae 1.83 million bp 1 Escherichia coli (1997) Located in the lower intestines of animals Pathogenic strains (ex. E. coli 0157) Genome 4.6 megabases ~ 4000 genes, ~88 % of genome open reading frames 2 Single circular chromosome http://www.sinauer.com/cooper/4e/micrographs0603.html http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/bactchromo.gif 3 E. coli biology Prokaryote nucleoid region contains the chromosome Neisseria gonorrhoeae. 4 E. coli reproduction Bacteria reproduce by binary fission -> Exponential growth 5 Bacterial growth colony - visible cluster of clones about 1 million cells /colony Growth on agar plate lawn – entire plate is covered, no individual colonies visible 6 Growth of bacteria (E. coli) Lag phase - slow or no apparent growth Log phase –double every 20’ to 1 X 109/ml Stationary phase nutrient and/or oxygen limited Cell number remains constant Death phase Nutrients gone, toxic products build up, cells die 7 Bacterial growth curve 8 Growth media minimal media =only essentials provided Sugar (carbon source) + salts bacteria synthesize aa, nucleotides, vitamins complete media selective media Allows one species to grow while selecting against another 9 Solid and liquid culture Growth in liquid media Growth on agar plate 10 Phenotypes Prototroph can synthesize requirements from minimal media Auxotroph nutritional mutant Requires one or more supplements to grow 11 Bacterial phenotypes Resistant to ampicillin = Ampr Sensitivity to streptomycin = Strs auxotroph mutant requires tryptophan = Trp- trp-leu-thi+tetr ? 12 Bacterial mutants Nutritional mutants Auxotrophs that require supplement to grow Conditional mutants The mutation is only expressed in a certain condition Resistance mutant Antibiotic resistance in bacteria 13 quorum sensing http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/34 01/04.html 14 How do bacteria undergo genetic recombination? 15 Conjugation parasexual mating one-way transfer of genetic information from “male” to “female” bacteria 16 E. coli nutritional mutants demonstrate conjugation Mix auxotrophs – alone cannot grow on minimal media: Strain A met- bio- thr+ leu+ Strain B met+ bio+ thr- leuOBTAIN ---> a few prototrophs that grow on minimal media: What would the genotype of this prototroph be? 17 Fig 18.2 Its rare ! 1 /10,000,000 Genetic recombination 18 Fig. 18.3 Davis U-tube showed that conjugation requires cell/cell contact met- bio- thr- leu- filter Note the filter Media can pass but cells can’t no prototrophs obtained Show that cell-cell contact is required 19 F factor (plasmid) carries DNA from “male” to “female” bacterium F factor circular, episomally maintained piece of DNA Encodes F pilus on donor cell Donor cell is F+ 20 Conjugation fig. 18.5 F+ + F- = 2F+ Steps: Pilus -> nick DNA -> transfer DNA -> make double stranded -> break pilus 21 F factor is a plasmid 94,000 bp Must have an origin of replication (ori) to be maintained can transfer to other cells. () 22 23 Recombination (rare): Integration of F factor into chromosome Hfr strain fig. 18.5 24 Hfr conjugation: F factor would transfer last • The first DNA to be transferred is the chromosomal DNA • Pilus is broken before F factor is transferred • Recipient cell remains F25 genetic recombination with Hfr The transferred DNA may degrade or undergo homologous recombination 26 Comparing an Hfr to F+ strain F+ x F- recipients are F+ Low frequency of recombinants upon conjugation Hfr x F- recipients are F- High frequency of recombinants upon conjugation 27 Hfr strains allow mapping of the E. coli chromosome! Site of integration and orientation of plasmid integration in the Hfr bacterial DNA is random Linear transfer of genes So, the time it takes for a particular gene to transfer depends on where its located on the chromosome 28 Lederberg’s experiment explained fig. 18.7 29 Interrupted mating technique to map genes on E. coli 1. Mix donor and recipient cells. Hfr strs + F- strr 2. Incubate to allow conjugation to get started 3. At time t, blend the culture in the kitchen blender. This disrupts the cell pairs but does not break the individual cells. 4. Plate recipient cells (use streptomycin selection – why?). 5. Screen for recombinant markers. 30 Elie Wollman & François Jacob The mating: Hfr H (aziRtonRlac+gal+strS) x F- (aziStonSlac-gal-strR) 31 Fig. 18.7 32 E. coli minute map = 4.7 million bp (4377 genes) Clock face.... Gene controlling Noon+ threonine synthesis 1 o'clock lactose degradation (lac-operon) 2 o'clock galactose -> glucose (gal-operon) 3 o'clock tryptophan synthesis (trp-operon) 5 o'clock histidine synthesis (his-operon) 7 o'clock lysine synthesis 8 o'clock streptomycin resistance 9 o'clock mannitol degradation 10 o'clock Place where chomosome synthesis begins in both directions ("OriC") 11 o'clock methionine synthesis Noon"F"-episome (where "F" is inserted) 33 34 Map genes using different Hfr strains In E. coli, four Hfr strains donate the genetic markers shown in the order given: STRAIN 1: QWDMT STRAIN 3: BNCAX STRAIN 2: AXPTM STRAIN 4: BQWDM What is the order of these markers on the circular chromosome of the original F+? What is the location and orientation of the F factor integration in the bacterial chromosome? 35 Transduction –phage mediated transfer of genes into bacteria Phage – a virus that infects bacteria Salmonella typhimurium bacteria and P22 virus U-tube experiment mix 2 auxotrophs prototrophs appear (low rate) 36 Filter prevents cell contact, transduction still occurs 37 Viral infection 1. Virus adsorbs to cell and injects DNA 38 39 2. normal bacterial activity is shut down and bacterium becomes a “phage factory” 40 41 3. host DNA broken into pieces, new viruses released to infect new cells 42 chromosomal DNA is chopped as viruses destroy cell 43 Faulty head stuffing As chromosomal DNA is broken, a piece can get packaged into a virus. This virus can infect a new cell and transfer genes from the first bacterium 44 Gene therapy with virus Ch 9, pg 231 Objective : insert a normal gene into human DNA that contains mutant gene Use virus as vector 45 Remove viral replication genes (can no longer cause disease) insert human gene Infect the human with the engineered virus The virus is the delivery system 46 Gene Therapy ADA 1990 Genetic defect in white blood cells Severe immune deficiency 47 Remove wbc Engineer in lab Infuse into patient Repeat 48 Bacteriophage phenotypes virulent phage - always lytic, cannot become a prophage temperate phage - lysogenic 49 Temperate phage 50 Transformation Naked DNA enters bacterial cell. Brings new genes Plasmids are extrachromosomally maintained 51 Plasmids are cloning vectors (ch 8 pg 179) pUC19 plasmid, a cloning vector ampr gene ori restriction sites (multiple cloning site) 52 Ampr Ori araC GFP 53 Transformation in the laboratory Make cells competent by calcium chloride 42 degree C heat shock facilitates uptake 54 Both have ori genome E. Coli genome is 4.6 million bp pGlO is 5,371 55bp Bla gene encodes ampicillin resistance Ampicillin antibiotic inhibits cell wall synthesis and cell lyse Bla gene encodes beta lactamase which breaks down ampicillin 56 LABORATORY E. coli bacteria strain K12/HB101 Non pathogenic Grows well at room T or 37oC Prototroph grows in Luria broth (LB) Host for plasmid DNA Killed by ampicillin (if untransformed) 57 Aequorea victoria – source of the GFP gene 58 Engineering the plasmid, pGLO 1. Isolate jellyfish DNA 2. Use restriction enzymes to cut out GFP gene 3. Purify GFP gene 4. Ligate GFP into plasmid 59 pGLO plasmid ori –replication of plasmid Ampr (bla)- ampicillin resistance Only transformed bacteria can grow in presence of amp GFP gene Ara C GFP gene expressed in presence of arabinose sugar 60 GFP gene cloned into plants Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings Reporter gene 61 C. elegans GFP a reporter for olfactory receptor gene expressed when worms sense the odorant, diacetyl 62 M. musculus (mouse) GFP reporter for MHC gene 63 GFP embryo GFP mother with GFPminus embryo 64 Every cell has GFP 65 Anopheles gambiae cells GFP and the reaper apoptosis gene 66 Hoxc13-GFP fusion protein expression in nails of embryonic day 14.5 mouse 67 Brain tumor expressing rfp GFP and YFP reporter for stem cells 69 Glow fish pets 70 The Lac Operon 1961, Jacob and Monod E. coli and other bacteria Bacterial Genes Many genes are constitutively expressed these are “housekeeping” genes Other genes are regulated Can be turned on, or off depending on cell needs 71 Operon group of coordinately regulated genes One promoter for a number of genes Polycistronic mRNA 1 mRNA molecule has info from multiple genes 72 E. Coli Lac Operon E. coli cells can convert lactose to glucose and galactose 73 The Lac Operon allows for coordinate gene expression Note: 1 mRNA, promoter 74 3 STUCTURAL GENES = Z, Y, A Lac Z gene encodes b-galactosidase enzyme b-gal lactose ------------- glucose + galactose 75 LacZ gene is only transcribed when lactose sugar is present b- gal is an inducible enzyme (induced by lactose from 5 copies enzyme to 1000s) 76 This only occurs in the presence of lactose, the inducer Fig. 19.2 hydrolysis 77 DNA -> Proteins -> promoter = regulates transcription of ZYA operator = must be unbound for P to be “open” 78 REPRESSOR PROTEIN (I) Encoded by Lac I gene Binds to operator Prevents RNA pol from binding to promoter 79 Is this operon ON or OFF? Is lactose PRESENT or ABSENT? Lac I, P, O, ZYA genes are CIS elements 80 INDUCER (LACTOSE SUGAR) LACTOSE PRESENT • • • • • Lactose enters Binds repressor protein (I) causing a conformational change This pulls the repressor off the operator RNA polymerase transcribes genes Cell metabolizes lactose 81 Lactose (the inducer) enters the cell Binds repressor protein causing a conformational change • 82 No lactose: repressor binds to operator polymerase cannot bind promoter no transcription of ZYA genes 83 NO LACTOSE 84 Lac operon animation 85 Operon mutants Mutant Mutant Phenotype lac I- constitutive expression because… Oc constitutive expression because … Plac Z- no expression of operon because … ? 86 Operon on, or off in the absence of lactose? Presence of lactose? Lac ILac Oc (I- P+O+Z+Y+A+) (I+P+OcZ+Y+A+) 87 Remember, repressor and polymerase are proteins which are diffusible These proteins bind DNA They act in TRANS The promoter, operator, and ZYA and I are genes and cannot move They act in CIS 88 Gene cloning in bacteria 1. Isolate DNA from organism 2. Cut DNA and vector with restriction enzyme(s) to produce overhangs (sticky ends) 3. Ligate to form recombinant DNA 4. Transform bacteria with engineered vector use selectable marker 5. Grow bacteria 6. Isolate protein from bacteria plasmid Jellyfish DNA GFP gene cut plasmid Recombinant plasmid pGLO Next transformation purify GFP Crack open the E. coli cells -- purify GFP Bacterial chromosome plasmid Pure GFP protein Human Growth Hormone (hGH) cloned into bacteria (1980s) hGH is a 191 aa peptide produced by the pituitary gland Pre-1980s hGH purified from cadaver brains Drawbacks? Today hGH has been cloned 26 inches tall Isolate (normal) human DNA 2. Cut hGH gene out with restriction enzymes 1. ….ggattgcgtacgctttgatcgtagtaataggacctagtgtgtacgtaagc gg…… ….ccattcgcatgcgaaagtagcatcattatccaggatctcacatgcattcg cc…… pure hGH gene gatcgtagtaatagg agtagcatcattatcc 3. Ligate hGH gene into plasmid vector = recombinant DNA 4. Transform bacteria 5. Grow bacteria - billions of copies overnight bacteria will express the hGH gene to make hGH protein 6. Purify hGH, bottle, sell, and inject before puberty Reported effects include decreased body fat, increased muscle mass, increased bone density, increased energy levels, improved skin tone and texture, and improved immune system function. Banned by IOC and NCAA (and others) Other cloned drugs made by bacteria Human insulin Factor VIII for hemophiliacs Interferon for chemotherapy EPO for anemia FSH for fertility clinics TPA to prevent blood clots 1987 1993 1993 1992 1996 1996 Many drugs for domestic animals cancer, arthritis, emphysema and other drugs Vaccines (hepatitis B surface antigen) Gene library Genomic library = Collection of clones that contain the entire genome Need > 50,000 bacterial clones to hold the entire human genome? Getting a gene into bacteria *Transformation (plasmid) Infection (phage) Gene gun Each colony contains a different fragment of DNA They are unordered! Need many plates! Screening a library fig. 8.11 cDNA library (coding regions only) = made from mRNA Tissue specific library Chromosome specific library Caveats Restriction enzymes may cut within genes 2. Need vast numbers of recombinant bacteria to represent entire genome 1. DNA libraries – Ch. 8 Genomic library– how many cells are needed to represent the entire human genome (46 chromosomes, 3 billion nucleotide base pairs)? cDNA library – what type of genes would be represented in a cDNA library of stomach lining? Chromosome specific library – how many chromosome libraries are required to represent the entire human genome? Genomic: Need many bacterial transformants to represent human genome http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/ecb/ecb_images/10_23_genomic_library.jpg cDNA library:Each tissue type expresses different genes Alcohol dehydrogenase Lane 1 RNA marker Lane 2 total RNA (Liver) Lane 3 Brain Lane 4 Cerebellum Lane 5 Cerebrum Lane 6 Kidney Lane 7 Liver Lane 8 Lung Lane 9 Spleen Lane 10 Thymus Lane 11 Testis Northern blot to assay mRNA levels in various tissues104 Chromosome specific library Lac operon animation Cloning into plants (GM) Ch. 9 Transgenic plants Plants that acquire a new genetic trait by direct introduction of gene Inject gene into plant embryo (or plasmids can be used) How to make a transgenic plant Isolate non- edible (wild) tomato plant DNA Cut DNA with restriction enzyme Cut out the gene that encodes sweetness (restriction enzyme) Cut plasmid (Ti)with same enzyme Ligate to form rDNA transform other plant embryo tissue culture How to make a transgenic tomato Benefits Drawbacks Increased crop yield Resistance to drought, freezing Decreased use of pesticides Decreased use of herbicides Increased nutrition Increased shelf life Can remove allergens increased seed costs pesticide resistant bugs resistant weeds new allergens may spread to other plants harmful to insects? Bt corn Corn plant engineered with gene that codes for a protein lethal to the corn borer The corn root worm Golden Rice Many in world are deficient in Vitamin A Leading cause of childhood blindness (500,000 new cases per year) Rice engineered to produce vitamin A! Controversial……. Do we need legislation for labeling of GM foods? Should GM genes, plants, animals, be patented? Cloning genes into animals A transgenic animal carries a foreign gene deliberately inserted into its genome. Transgenic goats Ch. 9 Produce human protein (drug) in milk Pharming Transgenic animals to produce human protein in milk Isolate human EPO gene (for rbc production) 2. Ligate to tissue-specific promoter 1. Promoter ONLY active in mammary gland protein only made in milk 1. Inject gene construct into animal embryo (fertilized egg) 2. Implant embryo into surrogate mother -> kid is born How do we know if kid is transgenic? How can we get the transgenic kid to produce human drug? 3. Easy to purify from milk • One herd can supply the world’s need of a particular drug (protein) • Clean, disease free Pail of milk with EPO Bottled EPO drug Transgenic animal contains one foreign gene Other proteins made in transgenic sheep and goat milk • Spider silk (BioSteel) – The dragline form of spider silk is regarded as the strongest material known; it's 5 times stronger than steel and twice as strong as Kevlar. genus Araneus • 2009: FDA Approves Drug From Transgenic Goat Milk ATryn, human antithrombin protein • Anti HIV protein • Anticancer drugs • Alpha1-antitrypsin for emphysema Mouse model organism These mice are models for human disease (Alzheimer) This mouse is genetically modified to be diabetic Knockout mice Normal gene (in embryo) has been replaced with non-functional gene Examples Cystic Fibrosis (CF) - The Cftr knockout mouse Cancer - p53 knockout mouse has a disabled Trp53 tumor suppressor gene Glaucoma - The DBA/2J mouse exhibits many of the symptoms that are often associated with human glaucoma Agriculture This pig is genetically engineered to be able to digest more and produce less manure Other pigs produce meat high in omega 3 fatty acids Medicine This chicken produces a human antibody in her eggs Xenotransplantation Pigs have similar sized organs to humans May involve knocking out pig cell surface antigens to prevent hyperacute rejections Fish farming genetically engineered salmon grow faster (not FDA approved) Researchers in Cuba and the UK have engineered tilapia to grow and put on weight up to 300% faster The fish that has been mainly caught in the nets of criticism is an Atlantic salmon with a growth hormone gene from Chinook salmon. Patenting Raw products of nature are not patentable. DNA products become patentable when they have been isolated, purified, or modified to produce a unique form not found in nature. Millions of patents 3 types of cloning 1. gene cloning Recombinant bacteria (as in lab) Transgenic plants Transgenic animals 2. reproductive cloning Yields an organism Embryo twinning or nuclear transfer 3. therapeutic cloning nuclear transfer for stem cells to treat disease Reproductive cloning Embryo twinning 1 sperm + 1 egg - 2 embryos (genetically identical) http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/wh atiscloning/ Nuclear transfer method - The clone’s DNA is a genetic copy of the donor SCNT = somatic cell nuclear transfer pg. 577 1997 Ian Wilmut http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/ 1. Obtain somatic cell from donor ewe 2. Serum starve to induce Go Place nucleus into enucleate egg 4. Grow for 6 days in lab 5. Implant into surrogate mother 3. 277 embryos -> 1 lamb (Dolly) Somatic cell nuclear transfer Our somatic nuclei (DNA from a differentiated cell) can be reprogrammed to embryonic state! Cloning game http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/cloni ngornot/ Why clone animals? Models for disease Pharming Endangered species – ex. Mouflon sheep, the surrogate mother was a domestic sheep! Reproduce deceased pet Help infertile couples $1395 PetBank provides pet lovers with the option to clone their exceptional pets. If you don't save your pet's DNA today, cloning may not be possible tomorrow. Saving your pet's DNA is simple, safe and lasts forever. $150 annual storage fee after the first year. K.C., the first animal produced by cloning from a cell taken from a carcass, was born in April 2002. Yoda and Sue were cloned from a Landrace boar in 2002. "FDA: Food from animal clones safe to eat" Associated Press, October 31, 2003 A Boca Raton, Florida, couple paid a California firm $155,000 to clone their beloved Labrador retriever, who died from cancer a year ago. The clone, a 10-week-old puppy dubbed Lancey, was hand-delivered to them earlier this week by Lou Hawthorne, chairman of BioArts International, a biotechnology company. . Problems with reproductive cloning High failure rate < 3% success rate 2003 first horse cloned (Prometea) 22 embryos, 800 eggs Enucleate egg may not function Embryo may not divide Embryo may not implant Miscarriage Large offspring syndrome (LOS) With abnormally large organs that don’t function correctly Abnormal gene expression We don’t understand how the nucleus is reprogrammed (its old DNA in a new egg!) Telomere problems Older DNA has shortened telomeres, but some clones show lengthened telomeres Ethical implications Is human cloning "playing with nature?" If so, how does that compare with other reproductive technologies such as in vitro fertilization or hormone treatments? If a clone originates from an existing person, who is the parent? What are some of the social challenges a cloned child might face? Should cloning research be regulated? How, and by whom? All countries have banned human reproductive cloning. Dark brown = permissive policy flexible Yellow = no federal government funding light brown =