Download Unit 3 - OrgSites.com

AP Biology: Unit 3 Study Guide
Name: ______________________
Chapter 12
The Cell Cycle
The Key Roles of Cell Division
1. What are the roles of cell division?
Cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells
2. What is a genome?
3. What are somatic cells and how many chromosomes do human somatic cells contain?
4. What are gametes and how many chromosomes do human gametes contain?
5. What is chromatin?
6. Draw a chromosome with 2 chromatids.
Label the centromere.
7. Draw a chromosome with 1 chromatid.
Label the centromere.
8. Define each of the following terms:
a. Mitosis –
b. Cytokinesis –
c. Meiosis –
The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle
9. Copy figure 12.5. In which phase does DNA replication occur?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 1
10. Fill in the following table:
Phase
Sketch of Cell in Phase
Notes
Interphase
(G2)
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
11. Define the following terms
a. Mitotic spindle –
b. Centromere c. Metaphase plate –
12. Compare cytokinesis in plants and animals.
Binary Fission
13. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 2
14. Explain the process of bacterial reproduction (via binary fission).
The cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system
15. What is the cell cycle control system and what does it do?
16. What is the G1 checkpoint and how does it influence the fate of a cell?
17. What is a growth factor?
18. What is density-dependent inhibition?
19. What is anchorage dependence?
20. List 4 differences between cancer cells and normal cells.
a.
b.
c.
d.
21. What is the difference between a benign and malignant tumor?
22. What is metastasis?
23. What does radiation therapy do?
24. What does chemotherapy do?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 3
Chapter 13
Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles
Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes
1. Define the following:
a. Genes –
b. Loci –
2. How are asexual reproduction and clones related?
3. How does sexual reproduction change the offspring?
Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
4. What is a life cycle?
5. A karyotype is a picture of chromosomes. A pair of matching chromosomes is called
homologous. What is the difference between autosomes and sex chromosomes?
6. How many autosomal pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
7. Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes. Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes.
a. Are gametes haploid or diploid?
b. Is a zygote haploid or diploid?
8. Explain how meiosis conserves the number of chromosomes from one generation to the
next.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 4
9. The life cycles of sexual organisms can differ in their timing of fertilization and meiosis, the
level of development of the haploid generation (single-celled or multicellular), and the level of
development of the diploid generation. Look at figure 13.6 and briefly draw/describe the
characteristics of the three possible life cycles of sexual organisms.
10. What does alternation of generations mean?
11. Explain the difference between a gametophyte and a sporophyte.
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
12. List the stages of meiosis, draw them (assume 2n = 6), and briefly describe what happens in
each.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 5
13. What is crossing over and when does it occur?
14. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.
Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
15. What is the original source of genetic variation?
16. List and describe the three sources of genetic variation that result from sexual reproduction.
a.
b.
c.
17. Explain how genetic variation is an important component of natural selection.
18. What would happen if there was no genetic variation?
Chapter 14
Mendel and the gene idea
Drawing from the Deck of Genes
1. Who was Mendel and why is his name important?
Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance
2. Define:
a. characterb. trait3. How did Mendel achieve true-breeding strains?
4. What is hybridization?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 6
5. What are P, F1, and F2 generations?
6. What is an allele?
7. What are four concepts that made up Mendel’s genetic model?
a.
b.
c.
d.
8. Define the following terms:
a. heterozygousb. homozygousc. phenotyped. genotypee. testcross9. How did Mendel derive his law of segregation?
10. What is a monohybrid cross? What phenotypic ratio does this cross exhibit in the offspring?
11. How did Mendel identify his law of independent assortment?
12. What is a dihybrid cross? What phenotypic ratio does this cross exhibit in the offspring?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 7
The laws of probability govern Mendelian inheritance
13. Explain the multiplication rule of probability.
14. For any gene with a dominant allele C and a recessive allele c, what proportions of the
offspring from a CC x Cc cross are expected to be homozygous dominant, homozygous
recessive, and heterozygous? SHOW YOUR WORK.
15. An organism with the genotype BbDD is mated to one with the genotype BBDd. Assuming
independent assortment of these two genes, write the genotypes of all possible offspring
from this cross and calculate the chance of each genotype occurring using the rules of
probability. SHOW YOUR WORK.
16. What is the probability that an offspring from the cross in the previous question will exhibit
either of the two recessive traits coded by the b and d alleles? SHOW YOUR WORK.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 8
Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics
17. What is complete dominance? Demonstrate with an example.
18. What is codominance? Demonstrate with an example.
19. What is incomplete dominance? Demonstrate with an example.
20. From a biological point of view, explain what makes some alleles give an organism a
dominant phenotype?
21. Give an example of a gene that has more than two alleles.
22. What is pleiotropy? Give an example.
23. What is epistasis? Describe an example.
24. What is polygenic inheritance? What aspect of the observed phenotypes for a trait would
suggest that it is polygenic?
25. What is meant by “nature vs. nurture” and how does it relate to one’s phenotype?
Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance
26. What is a pedigree and what does it tell us?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 9
27. Give two examples of recessively inherited disorders and what they do to the body.
a.
b.
28. Give two examples of dominantly inherited disorders and what they do to the body.
a.
b.
29. What are multifactorial disorders?
30. Give two examples of multifactorial disorders.
a.
b.
31. What is genetic counseling?
32. Give examples of tests that can be done to detect genetic disorders.
a.
b.
Chapter 14 – Genetics Problems (pp. 272 - 273)
Directions: Do the following problems from your textbook in the space provided. Be sure to follow
the directions in the textbook and the additional instructions listed below.
#2.Be sure to show your math.
a. homozygous for the three dominant traits
b. homozygous for the three recessive traits
c. heterozygous for all three characters
d. homozygous for axial and tall, heterozygous for seed shape
#5. Show the Punnett square.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 10
#8. Show your math
a. AABBCC x aabbcc  AaBbCc
b. AABbCc x AaBbCc  AabbCC
c. AaBbCc x AaBbCc  AaBbCc
d. AaBbCC x AABbcc  AaBbCc
#14. Copy the pedigree (exclude the names). Follow the directions in the textbook.
#16. Additionally, draw the pedigree of the example family and fill in the genotypes for each
individual.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 11
Chapter 15
The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes
1. What is the chromosome theory of inheritance?
2. Relate Mendel’s Law of Segregation to the process of meiosis.
3. Relate Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment to the process of meiosis.
4. What did Thomas Hunt Morgan discover?
Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome
5. What are linked genes?
6. What is genetic recombination?
7. What are the two sources of genetic recombination?
a.
b.
8. What is gene mapping?
9. Genes A, B, and C are located on the same chromosome. Testcrosses show that the
recombination frequency between A and B is 28% and between A and C is 12%. Can you
determine the linear order of these genes?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 12
Sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance
10. How can you tell if a disorder is sex-linked?
11. Give two types of sex-linked traits and describe what they do the body.
a.
b.
12. What is a Barr body? How can these be used to explain mosaicism in females (e.g. calico
cat)?
Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders
13. How do people receive the wrong number of chromosomes?
14. List the terms for the wrong number of chromosomes and what they mean.
15. Name and draw/describe the four major chromosomal alterations.
a.
b.
c.
d.
16. List two examples of disorders due to abnormal chromosome number. Which chromosomes
are misrepresented?
a.
b.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 13
Chapter 16
The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
DNA is the genetic material
1. Explain the process of transformation.
2. What is a phage?
3. Fill in the following table.
Scientist(s)
Frederick Griffin
Year
Major contribution(s) to understanding genetics
Oswald Avery, McCarty, and
MacLeod
Alfred Hershey and Martha
Chase
Erwin Chargaff
Rosalind Franklin
James Watson and Francis
Crick
4. Copy Figure 16.7 b. Label the bases, phosphates, sugars, hydrogen bonds, and the 3’ and
5’ ends.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 14
5. From a chemical point of view, why does it make sense that the bases should be on the
inside and the sugar-phosphate backbone should be on the outside of the DNA molecule?
Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair
6. Explain how the structure of DNA is related to its functional ability to replicate.
7. Why is this considered semi-conservative?
8. What are the origins of replication? How many do prokaryotes have? Eukaryotes?
9. What are replicating forks?
10. What is the job of DNA polymerases?
11. What is the source of chemical energy to elongate DNA (see Fig. 16.13)?
12. Why is DNA called “antiparallel”?
13. In which direction does DNA elongate (or “grow”)?
14. What is the difference between the leading and lagging strands?
15. What are Okazaki fragments?
16. What do primers do?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 15
17. Fill in the following table:
Protein
Function of Leading and Lagging Strands
Function for Leading Strand
Function for Lagging Strand
18. Describe 3 methods to minimize mistakes during DNA replication.
a.
b.
c.
18. What are telomeres and what is their significance?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 16
Chapter 17
From Gene to Protein
Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation
1. Briefly summarize the importance of genes in controlling metabolism.
2. Briefly describe how Beadle and Tatum’s work led to the one gene-one polypeptide
hypothesis.
3. List the differences between DNA and RNA.
a.
b.
c.
4. What is transcription? Where does it occur in eukaryotes?
5. What is translation? Where does it occur?
6. What is RNA processing?
7. Compare and contrast transcription and translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
8. How many different amino acids are there?
9. How are the triplet code and codon related?
10. Where are codons located?
11. What do codons code for?
12. What are the three stop codons?
13. What is meant by the redundancy of the genetic code?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 17
Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA: a closer look
14. What is the job of RNA polymerases?
15. In which direction is RNA assembled?
16. What is a transcription unit?
17. What are promoters?
18. What are transcription factors?
19. What is a TATA box?
20. Describe the process of transcription.
Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription
21. After transcription, how is the 5’ end of the pre-mRNA modified?
22. After transcription, how is the 3’ end of the pre-mRNA modified?
23. What are the 3 known functions of the 5’ and 3’ end modifications?
a.
b.
c.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 18
24. Copy Figure 17.9 and label the parts.
25. Describe RNA splicing.
26. Define the following terms:
a. Introns
b. Exons
c. Spliceosome
27. Ribozymes
a. Definition
b. Example
28. What is alternative RNA splicing and what is its importance?
Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide: a closer look
28. Name the three types of RNA and what they do.
a.
b.
c.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 19
29. Draw a cartoon of tRNA that is loaded with an amino acid. Label the following parts:
anticodon, amino acid attachment site, and amino acid.
30. Explain the concept of wobble. How might this characteristic be beneficial to an organism?
31. List the similarities between rRNA and the enzymes you have learned about.
32. Explain the three parts of translation (initiation, elongation, termination)
a. Initiation
b. Elongation
c. Termination
33. How does the cell power translation (where does the energy come from)?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 20
34. Copy Figure 17.16 (c). Label the following: mRNA, 5’, 3’, tRNA, anticodon, amino acid,
rRNA, large subunit, small subunit.
35. What are polyribosomes and what do they enable the cell to do?
36. List two post-translational modifications a cell may make on a protein.
a.
b.
37. What is the fate of proteins translated in:
a. Free ribosomes
b. Bound ribosomes
38. What are signal peptides and what do they do?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 21
RNA plays multiple roles in the cell: a review
39. Fill in the following table:
Type of RNA
Prokaryotic,
Eukaryotic?
mRNA
Basic functions (in your own words)
tRNA
rRNA
Primary transcript
Small interfering
RNA (siRNA) and
microRNA (miRNA)
Comparing gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes reveals key differences
40. Fill in the following table to contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression.
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Promoter
Terminator
Transcription factors
Polyadenylation signal
(AAUAAA)
Location and timing of
transcription and translation
RNA processing (5’ cap, poly-A
tail, RNA splicing)
Appropriation of proteins
Introns and exons
Point mutations can affect protein structure and function
41. What is a mutation?
42. What is a point mutation?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 22
43. Define each of the following types of point mutations and describe their effects:
a. Base-pair substitution
i. Silent mutations -
ii. Missense mutations -
iii. Nonsense mutation –
b. Base-pair substitutions or deletions
i. Frameshift mutation –
44. What is a mutagen? Give an example.
45. What definition of the gene includes all of the information presented in this chapter?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 23
Chapter 18
Microbial Models: The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
A virus has a genome but can reproduce only within a host cell
1. Which virus was first discovered and what did it infect?
2. Describe virus genomes (include type of nucleic acid and length)?
3. What is the capsid?
4. What does a viral envelope do? Why is it hard for a host to detect viruses that have these?
5. What is a bacteriophage (phage)?
6. Why are viruses called obligate intracellular parasites?
7. What is a host range? Give an example.
8. Give a general description of a viral life cycle.
9. Compare and contrast the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle of a virus.
10. What is virulent phage?
11. What are restriction enzymes and how do they help the host cell survive a phage infection?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 24
12. What is a temperate phage?
13. Copy Figure 18.7. Be sure to label the lytic and lysogenic cycles of this temperate phage.
14. Viral Envelopes
a. Where do viral envelopes come from?
b. How does a viral envelope help a virus enter the cell?
c. Give an example of a virus that uses a viral envelope.
15. Retroviruses
a. What do they do with their RNA?
b. What enzyme do they use?
c. Give an example of a retrovirus.
d. Why are these viruses so difficult to eradicate?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 25
16. Which probably came first, the virus or the cell?
17. How do vaccines work?
18. What are three processes that contribute to emerging viruses?
a.
b.
c.
19. Compare horizontal transmission and vertical transmission.
20. Explain how viroids and prions are different from viruses.
Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination contribute to the genetic diversity of
bacteria
21. List 3 differences between bacterial DNA and eukaryotic DNA.
a.
b.
c.
22. Where does almost all bacterial genetic variation come from? How is this different from most
of human genetic variation?
Gene Transfer and Recombination in bacteria
23. What is transformation?
24. Give an example of how the process of transformation can alter a bacterium.
25. What is transduction?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 26
26. What is conjugation?
27. What determines which bacterium is “male” or “female?”
28. What are plasmids?
29. Name 2 properties that a plasmid can give to a bacterium.
a.
b.
30. What are transposable elements?
Individual bacteria respond to environmental change by regulating their gene expression
31. Explain why genetic diversity is important to the survival of a species.
Trp operon
32. Under what conditions does a bacterium make tryptophan?
33. Under what conditions does a bacterium not make tryptophan?
34. Define the following:
a. Operator –
b. Repressor –
c. Regulatory gene –
35. Why is the trp operon called a repressible operon?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 27
36. Make a drawing that explains how the trp operon works.
Lac operon
37. Why is the lac operon called an inducible operon?
38. What does the lac operon do?
39. What is an inducer?
40. Make a drawing that explains how the lac operon works.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 28
41. Draw and/or explain how the presence of glucose affects the control of the lac operon.
Chapter 19
Eukaryotic Genomes: Organization, Regulation, and Evolution
Chromatin structure is based on successive levels of DNA packing
1. What is chromatin?
2. What is histone?
3. What is a nucleosome?
4. What is the difference between heterochromatin and euchromatin? Which type can be
transcribed?
Gene expression can be regulated at any stage, but the key step is transcription
5. What is cell differentiation and how does it occur?
Regulation of Chromatin Structure
6. What is histone acetylation and how does it affect gene expression?
7. What is DNA methylation and how does it affect gene expression?
Regulation of Transcription Initiation
8. What are control elements?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 29
9. What are transcription factors and how are they involved in gene expression?
10. Summarize the roles of enhancers, activators, and repressors on gene expression.
11. Explain how genes on different chromosomes can be activated at the same time
(coordinated expression)?
Mechanisms of Post-Transcriptional Regulation
12. What is alternative RNA splicing and how is it involved in gene expression?
13. Explain how the lifespan of mRNA can be changed and how this affects gene expression.
14. What RNA interference and does it alter gene expression?
15. How can translation be altered?
16. How does adding and removing phosphate groups to proteins affect their expression?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 30
17. Copy Figure 19.3 (this summarizes the stages of gene expression).
Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control
18. What do proto-oncogenes do?
19. How are oncogenes related to proto-oncogenes? What is their role in cancer?
20. What do tumor-suppressor genes and how are they involved in cancer?
Eukaryotic genomes can have many noncoding DNA sequences in addition to genes
21. What % of a eukaryotic genome codes for protein, tRNA, rRNA?
22. How does this compare to prokaryotes?
Duplications, rearrangements, and mutations of DNA contribute to genome evolution
23. What is polyploidy and how can it be beneficial to an organism?
24. Explain how gene duplication can eventually be beneficial?
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 31
25. Give an example of a protein that has resulted from gene duplication.
26. Explain how gene duplication can explain the presence of multigene families and
pseudogenes.
Chapter 20
DNA Technology and Genomics
1. What is recombinant DNA?
2. What is genetic engineering?
3. What is biotechnology?
DNA cloning permits production of multiple copies of a specific gene or other DNA segment
Gene Cloning
4. What is gene cloning?
5. Define the following terms:
a. Restriction enzymes
b. Restriction sites
c. Restriction fragment
d. Sticky end
e. DNA ligase
6. Draw a picture that demonstrates restriction sites, restriction fragment, and sticky ends.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 32
7. In your own words, list the steps of inserting a eukaryotic gene into a bacterial plasmid (see
Fig. 20.4). Use drawings if helpful.
8. Why would researchers be interested in cloning segments of DNA?
9. How do researchers identify bacterial colonies that have taken in the gene of interest?
PCR (gene amplification)
10. What does PCR accomplish?
11. What are some of the advantages of PCR over DNA cloning?
12. What are some of the disadvantages of PCR over DNA cloning?
13. In your own words, list the steps of amplifying a segment of DNA (see Fig. 20.7). Use
drawings, if helpful.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 33
Restriction fragment analysis detects DNA differences that affect restriction sites
14. What is gel electrophoresis and how does it work?
15. In your own words, list the steps of gel electrophoresis and Southern blotting to detect
differences in restriction fragments among individuals (RFLPs). Use drawings if helpful.
Entire genomes can be mapped at the DNA level
16. What is the Human Genome Project?
17. Explain the following types of DNA maps:
a. Cytogenetic map -
b. Genetic (linkage) map -
c. Physical map -
d. DNA sequencing -
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 34
18. In your own words, list the steps of the dideoxy chain-termination method for sequencing
DNA (see Fig. 20.12).
Genome sequences provide clues to important biological questions
19. What is RNA interference and how can it be used to determine gene function?
20. Explain what DNA microarray assays do.
The practical applications of DNA technology affect our lives in many ways
21. List 6 practical applications of DNA technology.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 35
Unit 3 Summary
Unifying Themes
Give examples of how these themes were demonstrated
in this unit.
Science as a Process
Evolution
Energy Transfer
Continuity and Change
Relationship of
Structure and Function
Regulation
Interdependence in
Nature
Science, Technology,
and Society
AP Biology
Unit 3 Study Guide
page 36