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12.1 DNA: The Genetic Material Nucleic acid nucleotides DNA RNA complementary Nitrogenous base purine pyrimidine orientation antiparallel histone nucleosome chromosome Chargaff’s rule double helix 12.2 Replication of DNA Replication template semiconservative replication DNA Helicase Binding proteins RNA Primase synthesize DNA polymerase Complex macromolecule that stores and communicates genetic information; DNA and RNA subunit of nucleic acid; made of a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base Type of nucleic acid called Deoxyribonucleic acid; composed of two complementary, precisely paired strands of nucleotides wound in a double helix; carries genetic information on the chromosomes located in cells Type of nucleic acid; Ribonucleic acid; guides protein synthesis Being complements of each other; refers to the precise pairing of purine(adenine and guanine) and pyrimidine(thymine and cytosine) bases between strands of nucleic acid A compound with nitrogen; types of bases: purines and pyrimidine Double ringed nitrogenous base; ex. Guanine and adenine Single ringed nitrogenous base; ex. Thymine, cytosine and uracil Refers to the directions of the two strands of DNA; determined by the numbering of carbon molecules located on the strands Refers to the fact that the two strand of DNA run in opposite direction to one another; one strand is oriented 5’ to 3’(five prime to 3 prime); the other strand is oriented 3’ to 5’— Beadlike proteins that DNA tightly coils around to decrease in size Repeating subunit of chromatin fibers, consisting of DNA coiled around histones Made up of groups of nucleosomes grouped into chromatin fibers and then supercoiled into shape Amount of nitrogenous bases equal each other in DNA; adenine=thymine and cytosine=guanine twisted-ladder shape of DNA formed by two nucleotide strands twisted around each other the action or process of making a copy or duplicating a gauge, pattern, or mold used as a guide to the form of a piece being made method of DNA replication in which parental strands separate, act as templates, and produce molecules of DNA with one parental DNA strand and one new DNA strand Enzyme responsible for unwinding and unzipping the double helix of DNA for replication In the unwinding process, hold the parent DNA apart so that copies can be made Leading strand discontinuously Lagging strand Okazaki fragment template An enzyme that adds a short segment of an RNA primer on each strand of DNA during the unwinding of DNA To form or make by combining parts of elements enzyme that initiates the making of new DNA molecules by adding the appropriate nucleotides to the 3’ end of the new DNA strand/ The DNA strand that is synthesized continuously during replication; nucleotides are added to the 3’end not continuous; broken; interrupted; The DNA strand that is replicated discontinuously from the 5' to the 3' direction short segment of DNA synthesized discontinuously in small segments in 3’ to 5’ direction by DNA polymerase Something that serves as a pattern for the making of a macromolecule catalyzed To bring about; to initiate 12.3 DNA, RNA, and Protein Central dogma codon messenger RNA The central dogma of molecular biology explains that DNA codes for RNA, which codes for making proteins used in the organism. DNA->RNA->protein three-base code in DNA or RNA type of RNA that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to direct protein synthesis in the cytoplasm type of RNA that associates with protein to form ribsomes ribonucleic acid guides protein synthesis enzyme that regulates RNA synthesis Found on mRNA and starts translation Found on mRNA and stops translation UAA, UGA, UAG process in which mRNA is made from the template of DNA type of RNA that transport amino acids to the ribosome process in which mRNA attaches to the ribosome and a protein is assembled Located on the transfer RNA; Three base code that is the complement to the codon on the messenger RNA ribosomal RNA RNA RNA polymerase Start codon Stop codon transcription transfer RNA translation anticodon 12.4 Gene Regulation and Mutation Gene expression conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein gene regulation ability of an organism to control which genes are transcribed in response to the environment operon section of DNA containing genes for proteins required for a specific metabolic pathway consists of an operator, promoter, regulatory gene, and genes coding for proteins. Transcription factors Gene regulation by proteins used to control the timing and amounts of proteins transcribed in eukaryotes mutagen substance such as a chemical that causes mutations mutation permanent change in a cell’s DNA ranging from changes in a single base pair to deletions of large sections of chromosomes Hox genes A form of gene regulation in an eukaryotic embryo where a series of genes controls the organs and tissues that develop in various parts of an embryo. RNA interference Form of eukaryotic gene regulation in which small pieces of mRNA interfere with translation by binding to sections of mRNA Point mutation Mutation that affects a single nucleotide, usually by substituting one nucleotide for another; generally but not always change one of the amino acids in a protein. substitution A point mutation in which one base is exchanged for another; two types: missense and nonsense Missense substitution A substitution in a single nucleotide that alters the DNA code so that it codes for the wrong amino acid causing a problem in the protein. Nonsense substitution A substitution in a single nucleotide that alters the DNA code so that it codes for a stop codon instead of an amino acid. This causes translation to terminate early causing proteins not to function normally. Frameshift mutation Mutation that shifts the reading frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide. All amino acids after the insertion/deletion will be different than they should. insertions Additions of a nucleotide to the DNA sequence will cause a frameshift mutation which changes proteins made Deletion Loss of a nucleotide to the DNA sequence will cause a frameshift mutation which changes proteins made Duplication involves a repeat of a codon(s).Addition of the same nucleotide; will cause a difference in the protein made Expanding mutation (tandem repeats) Addition of the same nucleotide and are directly adjacent to each other; alters type of protein made