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DNA and Heredity What Mendel didn’t know Genes • Are on chromosomes • Chromosomes are made of DNA (+ protein) • DNA is composed of subunits called nucleotides • There are two basic types of nucleotides (one ring or two ring) Nucleotides • 4 different nucleotides – – – – Adenine (2-ring) Thymine(1-ring) Guanine (2-ring) Cytosine (1-ring) • Chargaff’s rule – The amount of adenine in DNA is always = to the amount of thymine – The amount of guanine is always = to the amount of cytosine DNA Structure • DNA has a ‘twisted ladder’ structure (double-helix) • Nucleotides pair specifically to make two sides of the ladder • A–T • G–C Base-pairing rule mnemonic • All Tigers Can Grin (A with T; G with C) DNA (Chromosome) Replication • How do chromosomes copy themselves? • DNA ‘unzips’ • Each side of ladder serves as a template • More nucleotides come to base-pair with existing nucleotides Summary From cell to DNA More about traits • Incomplete dominance – Not like blending paint – White is an absence of color – Less color means you get pink instead of red Still more…Traits • One gene may affect more than one trait • Mendel observed that – Plants with colored seed coats had colored flowers – Plants with colorless seed coats had white flowers • Tiger has white coat and blue eyes More…. About traits • More than one gene may affect a trait (e.g., height, skin color, eye color) • These are polygenic traits (controlled by multiple genes) • Results in a range of outcomes And yet more… about traits • Environmental influences (e.g., nutrition, temperature) • In Siamese cats, production of dark color depends on temperature (cooler temperature on ears, tail, paws, face) From Gene to Trait • Genes are made of DNA nucleotides • The order of the nucleotides determines the gene product • To express a gene, it must first be copied Gene Product • Copying takes place in the nucleus (where the DNA is located; the ‘master’ recipe) • The copy (of the recipe for the gene product) goes to the cytoplasm • The recipe is read by the ribosome • A protein is made according to the recipe Changes in Genes • Each ‘word’ in the recipe has three letters (nucleotides) • A change in a word is called a mutation • It may cause a change in the recipe for a protein • A mutation may be helpful, harmful or neither • Sickle cell anemia is an example of the result of a harmful mutation Pedigrees (Family Trees) • Used to trace a trait through a family • Important for genetic counselors in tracking a hereditary disease • Example – hemophilia in the British royal family Hemophilia in the British royal family Other examples