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Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
Chapter 14 Social Cognition: Perceiving the Mental State of Others
“Man is a social animal.”
Attributed to Aristotle
If this looks like a scene we could
imagine with humans, it is because
our social brains have large areas of
overlap and similarity with the brains
of other primates
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
Chapter Outline
1.0 Introduction
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
3.0 Mirror neurons and intention detection
4.0 Summary
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
1.0 Introduction
Social cognition -- a uniquely human trait is the ability to understand each other as
conscious beings with internal mental states
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition:
Empathy carries the sense of feeling the feelings of others
Theory of Mind is often used to highlight the idea that we normally have complex
metacognitive understandings of our own minds as well as the minds of others
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
1.0 Introduction
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition:
Mentalizing refers to that, when we have a well-developed Theory of Mind, we
understand ourselves and others not just as sensory objects but also as subjective
beings with mental states
Mind-reading, like mentalizing, identifies our ability to attune our own behaviors to
the minds and anticipated actions of others
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
1.0 Introduction
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition:
Intentionality refers to how our minds and mental states are always ‘about
something else’ in a way that physical objects are not. Our thoughts always have an
object.
Minds have mental states that represent objects and events outside themselves. It
not clear that other species comprehend the intentional nature of minds in their
conspecifics
Intersubjectivity emphasizes our ability to coordinate mutual interactions in light of
our perception of the subjectivity and intentionality of others.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
1.0 Introduction
The importance of perspective: the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person
Science usually works from a 3rd person perspective: this means that researchers
adopt an objective point of view, seeing all evidence as a physical object.
Recently, scientists studying human consciousness have argued for using a 1st
person perspective as another means of gathering evidence: collecting data using
introspection or self-report.
In the 2nd person perspective, the other person is viewed as a subject rather than
an object, as someone who has mental states. This perspective is less well
established in psychological science though it is well-known in clinical psychology.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
1.0 Introduction
Theory of Mind (TOM) -- the full-fledged ability to understand and predict our own
and others’ minds. TOM has been explained by three kinds of theories:
Module theories suppose that human beings develop a theory of mind module
(TOMM) that is separate from -- but builds on -- other mental abilities that may be
shared by non-human primates and other mammals, although only humans are
presumed to have a complete TOMM.
Theory theories suppose that TOM capabilities develop as a primitive, implicit
theory over the course of development, much like Piaget’s conservation theories.
Simulation theories suppose that we understand other minds by internally
simulating the mental states of others in each situation.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
1.0 Introduction
TOM has been explained by three kinds of theories: module theories, theory
theories, and simulation theories.
It is likely that all three kinds of theory are needed to account for human
‘mentalizing’ abilities.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
Baron-Cohen (1995) hypothesized that a fully developed theory of mind is
comprised of 4 kinds of skills that develop independently:
•Detection of intentions of others (ID)
•Detection of eye-direction (EDD)
•Shared attention (SAM)
•Theory of mind module (TOMM)
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
A schematic diagram of BaronCohen’s Theory of Mind Model
with the eye-direction detector
(EDD) sending inputs to the
intentionality detector (ID) and to
the shared attention mechanism
(SAM). The SAM also receives
from the ID and interacts with
the Theory of Mind Module
(TOMM).
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
The first component of the TOM is the
intentionality detector (ID). This is the
ability to perceive intention or purposeful
action in many forms of biological and
non-biological movement.
For example, when we watch leaves
swirling in a parking lot, we have a
tendancy to see the leaves as ‘wanting to
go together’. We ascribe a common
purpose to the leaves.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
The second component of the TOM is the
eye-direction detector (EDD). This is the
skill to detect eyes and eye-like stimuli
and to determine the direction of gaze.
Humans, from the first hours of life, search
for and focus on the eyes of their
caregivers.
The ‘language of the eyes’ seems to be
fundamental means of communicating
mental states among humans.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
The third component is the shared
attention mechanism (SAM). This is the
ability we have, by the end of our first year
of life, to understand that when someone
else shifts the direction of their gaze they
are ‘looking at’ something.
We realize we can look too and see the
same thing.
Gaze shifting and social pointing of fingers
are ways we learn to direct the attention of
a companion.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
The final component is the Theory of Mind Module (TOMM). This is a complex
knowledge base containing rules of social cognition that develops by the time
we reach our 4th birthday.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
Theory of Mind Module (TOMM)
Some of the things that the TOMM tells us by the age of 4 years:
•Appearance and reality are not necessarily the same: a rock can look like an
egg but not be an egg; I can pretend to be a dog and not be a dog
•Other people have mental states as well as physical states
•I can fool or deceive others, I understand the the point of games like hike-andseek
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
From action to intention
The mirror neuron system (MNS) is a collection of
cortical neurons that allow humans to understand the
intentions of others from observation of their actions
Mirror neurons were first discovered in the frontal cortex
of macaque monkey and shortly thereafter in their
parietal cortex by Rizzolatti and colleagues.
A monkey with a microelectrode attached to his head
performing inside an fMRI apparatus: (a) microelectrode,
(b) fMRI coil, and (c) cradle.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
From action to intention
Observed acts of another monkey
can evoke mirror neuron responses:
the mirror neuron responds to
observed actions of (a) another
monkey, (b) the experimenter, and (c
) the recorded monkey itself.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
From action to intention
Individual mirror neurons have not been
studied in human to date, however there
are marked similarities between mirror
neuron systems studied in monkey using
single unit recordings (top panel) and in
human using neuroimaging of populationlevel neuronal responses (bottom panel).
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
From action to intention
A long-standing challenge in the study of mirror neurons has been distinguishing
between simple action recognition (is that grasping, reaching, or holding?) and
intention detection (where an agent has a goal which is accomplished by the action:
drinking tea versus cleaning up after tea).
A central question: does the mirror neuron system respond to the act regardless of
context? This implies that mirror neurons do action recognition.
Or does it respond to acts in particular contexts? This implies that mirror neurons do
intention detection.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
To investigate this question: an fMRI study of participants observing acts with and
without context
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Results: Actions embedded in contexts (Intention
condition) yielded a significant increase in activation in
the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus and the
adjacent sector of ventral premotor cortex
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Finding posterior mirror neurons
Mirror neurons are not constrained to the
frontal lobe: like frontal mirror neurons,
mirror neurons in inferior parietal cortex
respond to particular acts in particular
contexts.
Converging evidence indicates that there
are core social imitation systems, with
frontal mirror neuron systems interacting
with parietal mirror neuron systems,
which in turn interact with both frontal
and superior temporal regions.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Eye detection and gaze perception
A clear understanding of the role of
the eyes in social cognition requires
that we understand the various kinds
of eye and gaze processing.
Several types of eye and gaze
processes are shown at right.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Eye detection and gaze perception
Where do these processes take place
in the brain?
The Superior temporal sulcus (STS) registers
eyes and eye-like stimuli. The more complex
levels of gaze processing involve connections
between STS and areas in the parietal lobe,
particularly the intraparietal sulcus.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Shared attention
Shared attention seems to be a social
skill that is unique to great apes and
humans. Shared attention is more than
simply looking at the same thing that
another person is looking at: it involves
the additional qualification that the two
observers not only observe the same
object but also know that the other is
looking at that object.
It is a triadic (three-way) activity.
Pointing is a sign of triadic interaction.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Shared attention
Brain networks for shared attention
include frontal areas such as
ventromedial prefrontal cortex, the
left superior frontal gyrus, the
cingulate gyrus, and the caudate
nucleus.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Higher-order theory of mind abilities
Attributing mental states to other
Where in the brain does attribution of
mental states, or mentalizing, occur?
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays an
important role in mentalizing: the medial
wall of the PFC can be divided into 3
segments from top to bottom
Dorsolateral PFC
Medial PFC
Ventromedial PFC
Other brain areas involved in mentalizing
are the cingulate and the paracingulate
gyri, known collectively as anterior
cingulate cortex (ACC)
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Perspective taking and intentional stance
Perspective taking is a fundamental
social skill that allows us to understand
how another person thinks and feels.
Reading another’s intentional stance is
another key social skill. For example,
when playing a game with others, some
gamers will try to ‘psych out’ their
opponent. They are utilizing their
mentalizing abilities to ‘read the mind’ of
their opponent.
Brain areas thought to subserve these processes
are in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC).
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Face perception
Perception of the unchanging aspects of
the human face occurs in the fusiform
face area (FFA) in the inferior temporal
lobe.
At right is a view of the brain from the
bottom looking up. The fusiform gyrus is
shown in yellow in the left and right
hemispheres.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Face perception
Brain activation for faces in the fusiform
face area (FFA, shown in red) versus
objects, which activate the
parahippocampal gyri (PHG, shown in
blue) in the inferior temporal lobe
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
3.0 Mirror Neurons and Intention Detection
Disordered social cognition in autism
Deficits in social cognition are defining features
of autism. Are social deficits observed in
children with autism related to mirror neuron
system dysfunction?
A study by Dapretto and colleagues (2006)
showed that brain activation in mirror neuron
systems in typically developing children (a)
was much higher than activation in children
with autism (b). More research must be
accomplished before we can be sure that the
mirror neuron system is impaired in individuals
with autism.
Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Edited by Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage
2007 Academic Press
4.0 Summary
Social cognition abilities in human beings
are complex and multifaceted. They are
supported by multiple systems of
interconnected cortical and subcortical
areas.
During evolution, the simpler valuation
and behavioral system of the limbic brain
was overlaid by the growing cerebral
cortices that make complex cognition
possible.