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Overview of Ch. 6: Behavioral Views of Learning • • • • • • • • Understanding Learning The ABC’s of Behavior Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Classroom Behavioral Interventions Problems & Issues Applied Behavior Analysis Social Learning Theory • Definition of Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience • The ABC’s of Behavior: AntecedentsàBehavioràConsequences So, can control B by manipulating A’s & C’s Respondent (Classical) Conditioning • Respondents: Involuntary responses • – Conditioning involves pairing 2 stimuli. – Behavior is elicited – Control by antecedents Conditioned reflexes: Pavlov’s dilemma • Conditioned Emotional Responses: Watson’s experiment • Extinction & spontaneous recovery • Generalization, Discrimination Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Neutral Neutral Stimulus Stimulus(NS) (NS) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR) Unconditioned Unconditioned Response Response(UR) (UR) Repeat Repeatpairing pairingUS USwith withNS NS Conditioned Conditioned Stimulus Stimulus(CS) (CS) Conditioned Conditioned Response Response(CR) (CR) • Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning –Number of pairings –Consistency –Timing of the CS & US: Trace, delay, simultaneous, or backward conditioning Operant Conditioning • Operants: deliberate actions • – Involves response contingent consequences – Behavior is emitted – Control by consequences Thorndike’s Law of Effect • Skinner’s research: – Reinforcement/punishment: Consequence that immediately follows the behavior & results in behavior being more/less likely to occur in the future – Positive reinforcem./punishment: desirable/aversive stimulus presented. Ex. Premack principle – Negative reinforcem./punishment aversive/desirable stim removed – Conditioned (secondary) reinforcers & punishers Kinds of Reinforcement & Punishment Behavior Behaviorencouraged encouraged Stimulus Stimulus presented presented Stimulus Stimulusremoved removed or or withheld withheld Behavior Behaviorsuppressed suppressed Positive (presentation) Reinforcement Positive (Presentation) Punishment Negative (Removal) Reinforcement Negative (Removal) Punishment • What is the difference between: –Punishment & retribution for wrongdoing? –Negative punishment & extinction? –Ignoring the person and extinction? Reinforcement Schedules Types of Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Intermittent Fixed Interval Ratio Variable Ratio Interval • Factors that influence reinforcement – Immediacy – Consistency – Schedules of reinforcement. Which schedules of reinforcement are best for »establishing the behavior? »building persistence? »increasing rate of performance? • Note that: – Positive & negative reinforcement often occur in the same situation. Ex. Tantrum in a grocery store. – Operant & respondent behavior often occur together. Ex. Running from a dog. Behavioral Interventions in the classroom • Antecedents control – Provide info about expected behaviors – Cueing: used to signal when a behavior should be emitted – Prompting: used to get the right behavior to occur at the right time. • Controlling A & C: Behavioral skills training (BST) • Consequences control: Shaping, token economy, time out, response cost, & positive practice • BST Procedures: Ex. Teaching assertiveness & social skills – A (instructions & modeling) àB (rehearsal) àC (feedback) – Used with learners who can follow instructions & imitate models to teach new behaviors – Program for success: start with easy behaviors – Model has high status or similarity – Model reinforced: vicarious conditioning – Immediate rehearsal – Mix descriptive praise & corrective feedback – Repeat rehearsal of correct behavior • Shaping: reinforcement of successive approximations of a target behavior that does not currently exist. –Used when instructions & modeling not applicable or not effective –Sometimes used accidentally to develop problem behaviors • The Token economy: Involves systematic use of conditioned reinforcers (tokens) to increase desirable behaviors. – Tokens easy to deliver & accumulate & not readily accessible – Present tokens immediately after behavior & pair token delivery with descriptive praise – Tokens exchanged for back-up reinforcers. Best to have a variety – Begin with a continuous schedule of reinforcement & a generous exchange rate – Fade tokens gradually & let natural reinforcers maintain target behavior • Time out – Following problem behavior, child immediately removed from all reinforcement – Provide no attention when taking child to time out – Time out must be brief, practical, & safe – Child must be calm before release – Time-in environment must be reinforcing • Response Cost: contingent on the problem behavior a reinforcer is immediately removed – Reinforcer lost must be large & important – Symbolize the reinforcer loss if not immediate – Use reinforcement of desirable behavior with response cost – Consider ethical issues • Positive practice: contingent on problem behavior, the individual has to engage in correct forms of relevant behavior for a period of time. – Caution Problems & Issues • Side Effects of Punishment – Escape/avoidance behaviors negatively reinforced – Modeling the use of punishment – Use of punishment negatively reinforced – User established as a conditioned punisher – Ethical issues • Effects of use of extrinsic rewards • Effect of satiation on motivation Applied Behavior Analysis • Baseline behavior & Target behavior • Scientific approach: A-B-A-B design (A=baseline, B=treatment) • Classroom application: A-B design 1 2 3 - Specify the desired behavior - Plan a specific intervention - Keep track of the results Social Learning Theory • Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: – Reciprocal determinism:behav is influenced by & also influences both internal factors (observations & expectations) & external factors (conditioning) – Observational learning (modeling) » Attention: affected by competence, popularity, & similarity of model » Analysis & Retention: affected by one’s developmental status & rehearsal » decision making: affected by one’s goals, motivation level & vicarious conditioning (leads to strengthening/weakening of inhibitions) » reproduction